Emerging Contaminants Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem: Human Health Risks
Koigoora Srikanth1,2*, Kalva Sukesh1, Ambati Ranga Rao1*, Gollapalli Pavan1 and Gokare A Ravishankar3
1 Department of Biotechnology, Vignans Foundation for Science, Deemed to be University, India
2Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Portugal
3Dr. CD Sagar Center for Life Sciences, Dayananda Sagar Institutions, India
Submission: January 06, 2019, Published: January 29, 2019
*Corresponding author: Koigoora Srikanth, Department of Biotechnology, Vignans Foundation for Science, Technology and Research, Deemed to be University, Vadlamudi-522213, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Ambati Ranga Rao, Department of Biotechnology, Vignans Foundation for Science, Technology and Research, Deemed to be University, Vadlamudi-522213, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
How to cite this article: Koigoora S, Kalva S, Ambati R R, Gollapalli P, Gokare A R. Emerging Contaminants Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem: Human Health Risks. Agri Res& Tech: Open Access J. 2019; 19(4): 556104. DOI: 10.19080/ARTOAJ.2019.19.556104
Abstract
The current chapter deals with different emerging contaminants that are usually present in aquatic ecosystem and pose a potential threat to the aquatic organisms inhabiting there. Emerging contaminants may be many more of which the most common include trace metals, pesticides, nanomaterials and microplastic. The main source of emerging contaminants includes land-based sources, runoff from agricultural sources and waste water effluents from domestic and industrial sources which ultimately reach the aquatic system which define their fate and transformation. Most of these contaminants are not commonly monitored but have the potential to enter the aquatic environment and cause adverse effects on humans. The above said emerging contaminates are discussed in more details, giving examples of the most relevant compounds and their characteristics and risk indicators.
Keywords: Contaminants; Trace metals; Pesticides; Nanomaterials; Microplastics; Aquatic system; Health risks
Abbrevations: UN: United Nations; NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; PVC: Polyvinylchloride; PS: Polystyrene; PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; MPs; Microplastics
Introduction
Each day a new chemical contaminant is added into the environment globally and their list is increasing due to the immense production of these compounds [1]. Most of these chemicals are intended for use in industry, agriculture or as consumer products. There should exist a regulation which prevents or use of these chemicals before released into the environment. Aquatic pollution is a global problem and need to be monitored immediately and execution of plans to obtain solutions. Each day nearly two million tons of agricultural, industrial waste and sewage are discharged into the aquatic system [2]. In one of the studies conducted by UN states that the amount of drain water produced annually is around 1500 km3, which is almost six times more than the water which is present all over the world. Due to the lack of proper hygiene most of the aquatic sources are contaminated worldwide, leading to significant cause of water pollution. There exists different definitions for the term emerging contaminants and also the different types of materials/chemicals that should be covered in this class. Emerging contaminants are those substances which are not present in the environment and not usually included in the routine monitoring programme whose effect, behavior, and toxicological effects are unknown. Currently most frequently discussed emerging contaminates include trace metals, pesticides, nanomaterials and microplastics (Figure 1). There is a significant difference between contaminants and pollutants, as all pollutants are contaminants but only those contaminants which can result in severe biological effects are pollutants. These pollutants get converted into more toxic form upon exposure to different environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity and pH which get accumulated in food chain and cause serious effects on human health [3]. The emerging contaminants such as trace metals, pesticides, nanomaterials and microplastics are entering into the aquatic ecosystem from a number of sources which usually include waste water effluents from domestic and industrial sources, runoff from agricultural and land-based sources [4].
Trace Metals in Aquatic System
Many of the developing countries have been reported of trace metal contamination in the water bodies which is considered as one of the major global environmental problem [5]. The different sources of these trace metals include mining, landfills, atmospheric deposition, geological weathering, disposal from agricultural, domestic and industrial sources [6]. The trace metals which are finding their way into aquatic environment can be held in the water column or gets settled on the fine sediment [7]. Trace metals are seen effects various aquatic organisms by the process of bioaccumulation and biomagnification process [8]. The use of various model organisms for the evaluation of contamination particularly trace metals is very common these days [9]. Recently, much attention has been paid on the risk involved to human health while considering the environment itself; hence aquatic organisms are used to evaluate the impact of different contaminants on the human health [10]. The effect of different trace metals on aquatic organisms is presented in Table 1.
*Trace metals content varied in the organisms upon experimental conditions
Pesticides in Aquatic System
Pesticides are group of chemical compounds usually used to treat a number of plant or animal pests [10]. Despite their significant usefulness pesticides among the top priority contaminants entering into the aquatic environment from different sources causing potential threat to the aquatic organisms in turn effecting the humans [2]. It is observed that unintentional pesticide poisoning had killed around 355, 000 people internationally each year and such poisonings are strongly associated with excessive exposure and inappropriate use of pesticides [1]. Most of the pesticides are applied mostly on agricultural soils, they have a high potential to reach the aquatic environment, via runoff, agricultural storm-water discharges, and return flows from irrigated fields. Many researches have performed numerous studies to monitor the occurrence of pesticide residues in aquatic systems around the world and have the potential to cause adverse effects on human health and the environment, even at low concertation, as they are persistent and bioaccumulate in biota [21]. The effect of different pesticides on different model aquatic organisms is presented in Table 2.
Nanomaterials in Aquatic System
Nanomaterials are materials having digestion less than 100nm. Nanotechnology is a very vast growing field and its application has been found in a wide variety of applications which include electronics, optics, medical devises, sporting gear and also in cosmetic items [32]. Nanomaterials from various point and nonpoint sources are also reaching the aquatic ecosystem as a major sink [33]. Due to their small size nanomaterials are extremely active and possess unique physical, chemical and biological properties. Nanomaterials settle very slowly and as they remain suspended in air and water and are seen transported to greater distances than larger particles of the same material [34]. The specific properties of nanomaterials raise concern about their toxic effects on biological systems, which at the cellular level, include structural arrangements that resemble nanomaterials [35]. However, the toxic effects and environmental impact of nanomaterials are not fully understood, and the fate of nanomaterials in the aquatic environment along with other contaminates is really a virgin field [36]. Numerous studies were conducted by researchers in order to understand the fate, transport and toxicity of nanoparticles in the aquatic environment. Most of the studies revealed that majority of the engineered nanomaterials both in particulate and ionic form are toxic to the environment. Still further studies are warranted in order to understand the complete mechanism of action of nanomaterials especially to aquatic organisms at their cellular level [37]. In Table 3 different nanomaterials effecting various aquatic organisms are presented [38-47].
*Nano-materials content varied in the organisms upon experimental conditions
Microplastics in Aquatic System
The global production of plastic has reached new records due to the intense utilization of plastic globally. Due to its cost and ease of production has led to the production of numerous numbers of products made of plastic. Plastic is the most significant aquatic system litter in the world constituting between 60% to 80% of the total aquatic litter. Most of the plastic reaching the aquatic system is of terrestrial origin, whereas 18% is attributed to fishing industry. The term microplastic differs from author to author but the term defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), define microplastic as particles having dimension smaller than 5mm. The degradation of plastic into smaller pieces changes the chemical and physical characteristics of the plastic and thereby its availability and potential effect on aquatic organisms.
*Microplastics content varied in the organisms upon experimental conditions
Plastics are materials which are derived from petroleum products which usually include polyvinylchloride (PVC), nylon, polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). Pollution from plastic is a global environmental problem and concerns about this issue are increasing. Due to their ease of production and inertness these plastics are produced in large scale around the world and their global production has reached 8300 million metric tons till dated [48]. The high strength, resistance to water and their low cost made them a suitable candidate for use in diverse applications. Moreover, aquatic systems are seen receiving plastic through a number of routes and these have raised severe concerns about their potential risks to the aquatic ecosystem and human health. Due to their unique properties the plastic degrades very slowly in the environment resulting in the generation of plastic particles smaller than 5mm usually known as microplastics (MPs), which are found in various sizes and shapes for instance fibers, fragments and spherules which are acting as carriers for persistent organic pollutants which spread easily and get accumulated in the aquatic organisms [49]. The United State National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in 2008 has defined the microplastic as the materials having <5mm in diameter and nanoplastic are usually less than 100μm diameter. Latest reports reveal that MPs presence as universal in waste effluents from industries, house hold, urban estuaries and surface waters [50]. Both aquatic and terrestrial systems are effected by MPs pollution and the research over the past few years had shown that plastic from different sources are seen entering into the organisms via entanglement and ingestion [51]. Due to their small size these MPs are readily available for ingestion to a number of organisms including invertebrates, fish, marine mammals other filter feeding organisms and in turn effecting humans [52]. The impact of microplastic on different aquatic organisms is presented in Table 4.
Conclusion
The most serious consequences faced by the aquatic system are the potential ecological effects associated with various emerging contaminants. Although, the direct impacts of the effects caused by the environmental pollutants (trace metals; pesticides, nanomaterials; microplastics) on ecosystem is not straight forward, since there is void of information on the occurrence of many emerging contaminants, on their fate and behavior in the environment and on their long-term effects on aquatic ecosystem. In addition, the ecotoxicological significance of many pollutants and effects of other interference with other chemicals remains largely unknown and novel methods are to be adopted to evaluate the risk of emerging contaminants to human.
References
- Carvalho PF (2017) Pesticides, environment, and food safety. Food and Energy Security 6(2): 48-60.
- Geissen V, Mol H, Klumpp E, Umlauf G, Nadal M, et al. (2015) Emerging pollutants in the environment: A challenge for water resource management. Int. Soil Water Conserv 3(1): 57-65.
- Wilkinson J, Hooda PS, Barker J, Barton S, Swinden J (2017) Occurrence, fate and transformation of emerging contaminants in water: An overarching review of the field. Environ Pollut 231(pt 1): 954-970
- Williams M, Kookana RS, Mehta A, Yadav SK, Tailor BL, et al. (2019) Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban center. Sci Total Environ 647: 1256-1265.
- Edokpayi NJ, Odiyo OJ, Popoola EO, Msagati MAT (2016) Assessment of trace metals contamination of surface water and sediment: A case study of Mvudi River, South Africa. Sustainability 8(2): 135.
- Khatri N, Tyagi S (2015) Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on surface and ground water quality in rural and urban areas. Frontiers in Life Science 8(1): 23-39.
- Wu B, Wang G, Wu J, Fu Q, Liu C (2014) Sources of heavy metals in surface sediments and an ecological risk assessment from two adjacent Plateau reservoirs. PLoS One 9(7): e102101.
- Penicaud V, Lacoue-Labarthe T, Bustamante P (2017) Metal bioaccumulation and detoxification processes in cephalopods: A review. Environ Res 155: 123-133.
- Richir J, Sylvie G (2016) Trace Elements in Marine Environments: Occurrence, Threats and Monitoring with Special Focus on the Coastal Mediterranean. J Environ Anal Toxicol 6(1): 349.
- Lei M, Zhang L, Lei J, Zong L, Li J, Wu Z, Wang Z. (2015) Overview of Emerging Contaminants and Associated Human Health Effects. BioMed Res Int 2015: 404796.
- Shilla D, Pajala G, Routh J, Dario M, Kristoffersson P (2019) Trophodynamics and biomagnification of trace metals in aquatic food webs: The case of Rufiji estuary in Tanzania. Applied Geochemistry 100: 160-168.
- Radomyski A, Lei K, Giubilato E, Critto A, Lin C, Marcomini A (2018) Bioaccumulation of trace metals in aquatic food web. A case study, Liaodong Bay, NE China. Mar Pollut Bull 137: 555-565.
- Fang T, Lu W, Cui K, Li J, Yang K, et al. (2019) Distribution, bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of trace metals in the food web of Chaohu Lake, Anhui, China. Chemosphere 218: 1122-1130.
- Liu Y, Liu G, Yuan Z, Liu H, Lam PKS (2017) Presence of arsenic, mercury and vanadium in aquatic organisms of Laizhou Bay and their potential health risk. Mar Pollut Bull 125(1-2): 334-340.
- Hug Peter D, Sardy S, Diaz Rodriguez J, Castella E, Slaveykova VI (2018) Modeling whole body trace metal concentrations in aquatic invertebrate communities: A trait-based approach. Environ Pollut 233: 419-428.
- Rodriguez P, Fernandeza ML, Pardo I, Costas N, Martinez M (2018) Baseline tissue levels of trace metals and metalloids to approach ecological threshold concentrations in aquatic macroinvertebrates. Ecological Indicators 91: 395-409.
- Land SN, Rocha RCC, Bordon IC, Saint’Pierre TD, Ziolli RL, et al. (2018) Biliary and hepatic metallothionein, metals and trace elements in environmentally exposed neotropical cichlids Geophagus brasiliensis. J Trace Elem Med Biol 50: 347-355.
- Gu YG, Huang HH, Liu Y, Gong XY, Liao XL (2018) Non-metric multidimensional scaling and human risks of heavy metal concentrations in wild marine organisms from the Maowei Sea, the Beibu Gulf, South China Sea. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 59: 119-124.
- Esposito G, Meloni D, Abete MC, Colombero G, Mantia M, et al. (2018) The bivalve Ruditapes decussatus: A biomonitor of trace elements pollution in Sardinian coastal lagoons (Italy). Environ Pollut 242(Pt B): 1720-1728.
- Baz EMS, Khalil MM (2018) Benthic foraminifera and trace metal distribution: a case study from the Burullus Lagoon, Egypt. Revue de Micropaléontologie 61(2): 97-109.
- Nicolopoulou-Stamati P, Maipas S, Kotampasi C, Stamatis P, Hens L (2016) Chemical Pesticides and Human Health: The Urgent Need for a New Concept in Agriculture. Front Public Health 4: 148.
- Sumon KA, Rashid H, Peeters ETHM, Bosma RH, Van den Brink PJ (2018) Environmental monitoring and risk assessment of organophosphate pesticides in aquatic ecosystems of north-west Bangladesh. Chemosphere 206: 92-100.
- Fevery D, Houbraken M, Spanoghe P (2016) Pressure of nonprofessional use of pesticides on operators, aquatic organisms and bees in Belgium. Sci Total Environ 550: 514-521.
- Sturve J, Scarlet P, Halling M, Kreuger J, Macia A (2016) Environmental monitoring of pesticide exposure and effects on mangrove aquatic organisms of Mozambique. Mar Environ Res 121: 9-19.
- Nowell LH, Norman JE, Moran PW, Martin JD, Stone WW (2014) Pesticide Toxicity Index-A tool for assessing potential toxicity of pesticide mixtures to freshwater aquatic organisms. Sci Total Environ 476-477: 144-157.
- Chen Y, Yu K, Hassan M, Xu C, Zhang B, et al. (2018) Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of pesticides in a river-reservoir system. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 166: 320-327.
- Taştan BE, Tekinay T, Çelik HS, Özdemir C, Cakir DN (2017) Toxicity assessment of pesticide triclosan by aquatic organisms and degradation studies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 91: 208-215.
- Ieromina O, Peijnenburg WJGM, Musters CJM, Vijvera MG (2016) The effect of pesticides on the composition of aquatic macrofauna communities in field ditches. Basic and Applied Ecology 17(2): 125- 133.
- Li B, Lin J, Pang X, Li H, Li X, et al. (2018) Binary mixtures of alcohol ethoxylates, nonylphenol ethoxylates and pesticides exhibit comparative bioactivity against three pests and toxicological risks to aquatic organisms. Chemosphere 204: 44-50.
- Horton AA, Vijver MG, Lahive E, Spurgeon DJ, Svendsen C, et al. (2018) Acute toxicity of organic pesticides to Daphnia magna is unchanged by co-exposure to polystyrene microplastics. J Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 166: 26-34.
- Xie H, Wang X, Chen J, Li X, Jia G, et al. (2019) Occurrence, distribution and ecological risks of antibiotics and pesticides in coastal waters around Liaodong Peninsula, China. Sci Total Environ 656: 946-951.
- Srikanth K, Sundar LS, Pereira E, Duarte AC (2018) Graphene oxide induces cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in bluegill sunfish cells. J Appl Toxicol 38(4): 504-513.
- Srikanth K, Trindade T, Duarte AC, Pereira E (2017) Cytotoxicity and oxidative stress responses of silica-coated iron oxide nanoparticles in CHSE-214 cells. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 24(2): 2055-2064.
- John CA, Kupper M, Manders-Groot MMA, Debray B, Lacome MJ, et al. (2017) Emissions and Possible Environmental Implication of Engineered Nanomaterials (ENMs) in the Atmosphere. Atmosphere 8(5): 84.
- Bouloudenine M, Bououdina M (2016) Toxic Effects of Engineered Nanoparticles on Living Cells. Emerging Research on Bioinspired Materials Engineering, p. 34.
- Bundschuh M, Filser J, Lüderwald S, McKee MS, Metreveli G, et al. (2018) Nanoparticles in the environment: where do we come from, where do we go to? Environ Sci Eur 30(1): 6.
- Xue-Qing Zhang, Xiaoyang Xu, Nicolas Bertrand, Eric Pridgen, Archana Swami, et al. (2012) Interactions of nanomaterials and biological systems: implications to personalized nanomedicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 64(13): 1363-1384.
- Freixa A, Acuña V, Sanchís J, Farré M, Barceló D, et al. (2018) Ecotoxicological effects of carbon-based nanomaterials in aquatic organisms. Sci Total Environ 619-620: 328-337.
- Chatel A, Mouneyrac C (2017) Signaling pathways involved in metalbased nanomaterial toxicity towards aquatic organisms. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 196: 61-70.
- Andreani T, Nogueira V, Pinto VV, Ferreira MJ, Rasteiro MG, et al. (2017) Influence of the stabilizers on the toxicity of metallic nanomaterials in aquatic organisms and human cell lines. Sci Total Environ 607-608: 1264-1277.
- Borase HP, Salunke BK, Salunkhe RB, Patil CD, Hallsworth JE, et al. (2014) Plant extract: a promising biomatrix for ecofriendly, controlled synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 173(1): 1-29.
- Arturo A Keller, Adeyemi S AdeleyeJon, Conwaya R, Kendra L Garner, Lijuan Zhao, et al. (2017) Comparative environmental fate and toxicity of copper nanomaterials. NanoImpact 7: 28-40.
- Azevedo SL, Holz T, Rodrigues J, Monteiro T, Costa FM, et al. (2017) A mixture toxicity approach to predict the toxicity of Ag decorated ZnO nanomaterials. Sci Total Environ 579: 337-344.
- Du J, Tang J, Xu S, Ge J, Dong Y, et al. (2018) A review on silver nanoparticles-induced ecotoxicity and the underlying toxicity mechanisms. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 98: 231-239.
- Canesi L, Ciacci C, Balbi T (2015) Interactive effects of nanoparticles with other contaminants in aquatic organisms: Friend or foe? Mar Environ Res 111: 128-134.
- He X, Aker WG, Leszczynski J, Hwang HM (2015) Using a holistic approach to assess the impact of engineered nanomaterials inducing toxicity in aquatic systems. J Food Drug Anal 22(1): 128-146.
- Callaghan, MacCormack (2018) Nanoparticulate-specific effects of silver on teleost cardiac contractility. Environ Pollut 237: 721-730.
- Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Lavender Law K (2018) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances 3(7): e1700782.
- Jeong CB, Won EJ, Kang HM, Lee MC, Hwang DS, et al. (2016) Microplastic Size-Dependent Toxicity, Oxidative Stress Induction, and p‑JNK and p‑p38 Activation in the Monogonont Rotifer (Brachionus koreanus). Environ Sci Technol 50(16): 8849-8857.
- Dris R, Gasperi J, Tassin B (2018) Sources and Fate of Microplastics in Urban Areas: A Focus on Paris Megacity. Freshwater Microplastics. p. 69-83.
- Duis K, Coors A (2016) Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects. Environ Sci Eur 28(1): 2.
- Nelms SE, Galloway TS, Godley BJ, Jarvis DS, Lindeque PK (2018) Investigating microplastic trophic transfer in marine top predators. Environmental Pollution. p. 1-9.
- de Sa LC, Oliveira M, Ribeiro F, Rocha TL, Futter MN (2018) Studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future? Sci Total Environ 645: 1029-1039.
- Harmon MS (2018) The Effects of Microplastic Pollution on Aquatic Organisms. Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments. pp. 249-270.
- Guzzetti E, Sureda A, Tejada S, Faggio C (2018) Microplastic in marine organism: Environmental and toxicological effects. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 64: 164-171.
- Wang W, Wang J (2018) Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 108: 195- 202.
- Zhu ZL, Wang SC, Zhao FF, Wang SG, Liu FF, et al. (2018) Joint toxicity of microplastics with triclosan to marine microalgae Skeletonema costatum. Environ Pollut 246: 509-517.
- Wang Y, Zhang D, Zhang M, Mu J, Ding G, et al. (2019) Effects of ingested polystyrene microplastics on brine shrimp, Artemia parthenogenetica. Environ Pollut 244: 715-722.
- Odonovan S, Mestre CN, Abel S, Fonseca GT, Carteny CC, et al. (2018) Ecotoxicological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics in the Clam Scrobicularia plana. Front Mar Sci 5: 143.
- Mattsson K, Hansson LA, Cedervall T (2015) Nano-plastics in the aquatic environment. Environ Sci Process Impacts 17(10): 1712-21.
- Molins-Delgado D, Gago-Ferrero P, Díaz-Cruz MS, Barceló D (2016) Single and joint ecotoxicity data estimation of organic UV filters and nanomaterials toward selected aquatic organisms. Urban groundwater risk assessment. Environ Res 145: 126-134.