Review Article

Poultry Coccidiosis: - Clean Coops, Healthy Flocks

Zakariye Abdifatah Ahmed¹*, Abdul Rehman Rafee¹, Moktar Omar Sheikh Mohamed², Ahmed Abdullahi Salad³, Salma Ahmed Osman⁴ and Mustafa Ibrahim Ali⁵

¹Department of Epidemiology and public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Veterinary and Animal Science-Lahore, Pakistan

²Department clinics, surgery & obstetrics, faculty of veterinary science & animal Husbandry at Somali National University, Mogadishu-Somalia

³Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Production &Technology, University of Veterinary and Animal Science-Lahore, Pakistan

⁴Department of farm animal & herd health, Faculty of veterinary Medicine at Makerere University, Kampala Uganda

⁴Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, East Africa University Campus Garowe, Somalia

Submission: November 13, 2024;Published: December 10, 2024

*Corresponding author: Zakariye Abdifatah Ahmed, Department of Epidemiology and public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail: Zakixaji7

How to cite this article: Zakariye Abdifatah Ahmed, Abdul Rehman Rafee, Moktar Omar Sheikh Mohamed, Ahmed Abdullahi Salad, Salma Ahmed Osman and Mustafa Ibrahim Ali. Poultry Coccidiosis: - Clean Coops, Healthy Flocks. Arch Anim Poult Sci. 2024; 3(1): 555601. DOI: 10.19080/AAPS.2024.03.555601

Abstract

Poultry coccidiosis, a critical parasitic disease affecting the global poultry industry, is caused by protozoan parasites of the Eimeria genus, which infect the intestinal tract of chickens. This disease disrupts poultry production, resulting in symptoms like diarrhoea, reduced feed efficiency, and high mortality rates, particularly in young birds. In tropical and subtropical regions, favourable environmental conditions further facilitate the parasite’s survival and spread. Traditionally, chemoprophylaxis has been the primary preventative strategy, but overuse of anticoccidial drugs has led to resistance, pressing for alternative methods such as vaccination with attenuated Eimeria strains and improved farm management practices. These strategies emphasize the importance of maintaining hygiene, managing litter moisture, and controlling stocking densities to minimize infection risks.

In Somalia and other regions, coccidiosis remains a significant issue, especially in extensive or poorly managed farming systems where biosecurity and effective drug access are limited. Persistent challenges, such as poor litter management and insufficient anticoccidial drug efficacy, highlight the need for a more integrated approach to disease control. The review advocates for comprehensive management strategies combining hygiene, judicious drug use, and vaccination to boost poultry health and productivity, ultimately aiming to reduce the substantial economic losses associated with this disease.

Keywords:Coccidiosis; Chickens; Diagnosis; Eimeria; Prevention

Introduction

Parasitic diseases continue to be a significant challenge in limiting the growth and profitability of agriculture in developing countries. In these regions, the expansion and intensification of poultry production have often outpaced the availability of skilled husbandry practices. Among these diseases, poultry coccidiosis stands out as one of the most widespread and economically impactful diseases affecting poultry globally [1]. Coccidiosis is caused by a protozoan parasite belonging to various Eimeria species within the genus Eimeria, family Eimeriidae, order Eucoccidiorida, and phylum Apicomplexa [2]. These Eimeria species infect the intestinal tracts of multiple animal species and birds. Transmission usually occurs when animals ingest contaminated feed or water containing sporulated oocysts [3]. In chickens, nine Eimeria species are known, with Eimeria brunetti, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria necatrix, and Eimeria tenella being the most harmful. Other species, such as Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria mivati, Eimeria praecox, and Eimeria hagani, are less pathogenic [4].

Coccidian parasite infections have significantly impacted the commercial broiler industry economically over recent decades. These infections are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, where environmental and management conditions allow the parasite to thrive and spread throughout the year [5]. Poultry coccidiosis is one of poultry infectious diseases causing significant poultry losses in Somalia [6]. Coccidiosis caused by pathogenic Eimeria species typically presents symptoms such as dysentery, enteritis, and diarrhoea, sometimes blood-stained depending on the species involved. It can also lead to emaciation, reduced feed efficiency, delayed sexual maturity, drooping wings, stunted growth, decreased production, and often high rates of illness and death [7].

The most common and pathogenic species that affects the poultry industry globally is the E. tenella with 100% morbidity and a high mortality due to extensive damage of the digestive tracts of chickens [8]. Mortality rates are usually high in young chicks, because most of the Eimeria species affects birds between the age of 3 and 18 weeks [9]. The occurrence of clinical coccidiosis is directly related to the number of oocysts ingested by poultry at one time, the pathogenicity of the Eimeria species, the age of the infected chicken and the management system [10].

For the control of coccidiosis in chickens, a number of preventive medications have been approved for use world- wide, but reduced sensitivity and resistance are increasingly important as no new anticoccidial compounds are known to be under development [11]. The traditional control of coccidiosis mainly relies on chemoprophylaxis, which appeared to be effective in the last decades. However, the increased occurrence of resistance against routine anti-coccidial drugs has left the poultry industry with a renewed challenge for coccidiosis prevention and control and propelled the search for alternative strategies among which vaccination is of major importance [12]. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to review on poultry coccidiosis.

Review of literature

Etiology

Coccidiosis stands out as one of the primary parasitic diseases affecting poultry. This economically significant disease in chickens is caused by intracellular protozoan parasites from various Eimeria species within the genus Eimeria, family Eimeriidae, and order Eucoccidiorida [13]. Seven Eimeria species-E. acervulina, E. brunetti, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. necatrix, E. praecox, and E. tenellaare known to infect chickens, as shown in (Table 1). Despite being recognized for many years, coccidiosis remains one of the most economically significant parasitic diseases impacting poultry production worldwide.

Morphology/

Majority of Eimeria oocysts have ovoid shape. Other characteristics that is useful in species identification includes: zone of intestine parasitized, nature of macroscopic lesions, minimum sporulation time, minimum prepatent period, schizonts size and area in which it develops, location of the parasite within the epithelial cells and cross-immunity trails [14].

Lifecycle

The life cycle of all Eimeria species includes multiple rounds of asexual development, known as schizogony, followed by a sexual stage called gametogony, which leads to the formation of oocysts [15]. The infective stage, sporulated oocyst, is ingested and the action of mechanical and chemical factors in the gut (bile salt and trypsin) leads to the release of sporocysts and then sporozoites in the duodenal lumen and this stage is described in (Figure 1).

Epidemiology

The disease is endemic in most of the tropical and subtropical regions where ecological and management conditions favour an all-year round development and propagation of the causal agent [5]. The combinations of Eimeria species and the severity of infections can vary widely on both local and global scales. In Ethiopia, poultry coccidiosis caused by (E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E. maxima and E. tenella, is endemic in all parts of the country and affects mainly young growing birds [16]. In Somalia, Coccidiosis prevalence was observed to be lower in intensive farming systems compared to smallholder poultry farms [6]. This difference observed due to poor management system, malnutrition or nutritional deficiencies, adverse weather conditions and non-used anticoccidial drugs in extensive or smallholder chickens.

Agent related risk factors of Coccidial infection in poultry

The occurrence of poultry coccidiosis is dependent on both the species of Eimeria and the size of the infecting dose of oocysts. Due to the short prepatent period of the parasite and its high biotic potential, the number of oocysts in the litter rises rapidly [17]. Poultry coccidia have high capacity to reproduce within the host; this leads to high level of the parasite within the susceptible host and subsequently high level of contamination of the environment [18].

Host related risk factors

Coccidiosis is usually a disease of young birds, but birds can be infected at any time, if never exposed before. Coccidia populations take time to build dangerous levels, therefore, outbreaks usually occur when birds are between 3 and 8 weeks of age [19]. High animal density cramped on a small space, age of the bird at the time of the first infection and number of passages of the infection as well as on ability of the bird to develop proper specific immune response [20].

Environmental and management related risk factors

Management of poultry houses plays a momentous function in the spread of coccidiosis because coccidial oocysts are omnipresent and are easily spread in the poultry house environment. Further, owing to their high reproduction potential, it is very complex to keep chickens coccidia free, especially under current intensive rearing [21]. Prevalence varied by management and did not vary by flock size while bad management, such as wet litter that encourages oocyst sporulation, contaminated drinkers and feeders, bad ventilation, and high stocking density, can worsen the clinical signs [22].

Clinical Sign

Avian coccidiosis, caused by parasites of the genus Eimeria, produces anorexia and reduced weight gain and feed conversion in infected chicks [16]. Eimeria tenella infection leads to moderate to severe lesions in the ceca and can sometimes be fatal. Infected birds often show signs of depression, ruffled feathers, drooping wings, diarrhoea, and a tendency to huddle together. Feed and water intake typically decline, and birds may become thin and dehydrated. In laying hens, egg production rates drop. Cecal coccidiosis may also cause bloody droppings and anaemia. [23]. Clinical signs are associated with tissue destruction from the release of the merozoites and mature oocysts from the mucosal surface during the last generations of merogony and throughout gametogony. In severe infections, much of the mucosal epithelium is sloughed off and nutrient absorption is compromised [24].

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of coccidiosis in chicken is best accomplished by postmortem examination of representative number of birds. Diagnosis by fecal examination may lead to quite erroneous results [25]. In some instances, the major pathology is produced before oocysts are shed in the feces (E. tenella) and, conversely, the presence of large number of oocysts may not necessarily indicate a serious pathogenic condition. Thus, with E. acervulina, which has a high biotic potential, comparatively larger numbers of oocysts are shed than, for example, with E. necatrix. Furthermore, the accurate identification of the oocysts of various poultry coccidia is not easy [26]. In recent years, various biochemical and molecular methods have also been used [12]. A key reason coccidiosis remains a significant issue, despite the effectiveness of Eimeria as parasites, is the challenge of accurate diagnosis. Traditional parasitological diagnostic methods are labourintensive and often costly Oocyst per gram (OPG) counts in faeces or litters have a poor relation with the impact of the parasite on the performance of a flock. Identification of different species based on morphology of oocysts is very challenging and requires expertise [11]. Diagnosis of clinical disease caused by E. tenella is quite easy and action (therapy on the short term, change of preventive means on the long term) can be swift. These facts make its impact on the productivity of the broiler industry is relatively limited compared to the other species, although many broiler farmers associate coccidiosis only with caecal coccidiosis. This is a good example of perception not being in accordance with the facts. Eacervulina and E. maxima, both much more prevalent, are less perceived to be related with clinical coccidiosis in the field. E. acervulina is causing white lesions in duodenum and in heavier infections also more caudal, interfering even with the ability for E. maxima to develop [27].

Necropsy Findings

The specific type and location of gut lesions can indicate the Eimeria species involved. Eimeria acervulina primarily impacts the upper small intestine, causing small red spots and white bands. Eimeria maxima affects the whole small intestine, initially making it appear watery, and in later stages, it may contain blood and mucus, with the intestine becoming thickened and ballooned with red pinpoint lesions. Eimeria tenella targets the ceca (blind sacs) of the gut, often filling them with blood and pus, eventually hardening into a solid core [19]. Histopathologic ally, the wall of the gut is thickened indicating retention of fluid (edema). There may be blood in the lumen of the gut indicating blood loss (hemorrhage), or merely retention of an excessive amount of blood in the tissue (hyperaemia) there is also infiltration with various body reactions and the development of immune response [28].

Treatment, Control and Prevention

The use of anticoccidial feed additives over the past 50 years has been essential to the growth of the poultry industry, making high-quality and affordable poultry products more accessible. Coccidiosis prevention relies primarily on two methods: chemoprophylaxis and vaccination. Chemoprophylaxis, which involves adding anticoccidial agents to feed, remains the most widely used approach. [29]. Preventing coccidiosis is generally much easier than treating it. While drugs have been crucial for its control, the rise of drug-resistant Eimeria strains has reduced their effectiveness. This limitation has prompted a growing interest in alternative methods of coccidiosis management [30]. Apart from the use of drugs, control is now based on hygiene, vaccine and genetics. But genetics is a theoretical strategy not in practical use [17]. Prevention of avian coccidiosis is based on a combination of good management and the use of anticoccidial compounds in the feed or water. Litter should always be kept dry and special attention should be given to litter near water fonts or feeding troughs [31]. The prophylactic drugs used for prevention of coccidiosis are coccidiosistats. An effective coccidiostat should inhibit the schizogonic stage and allow immunity to develop. Prophylactic use is performed because most of the damage occurs before signs become apparent and because drugs cannot completely stop an outbreak [32].

Management

Preventing avian coccidiosis involves a combination of effective management practices and the use of anticoccidial agents in feed or water. It is essential to keep the litter dry at all times, with particular attention given to areas near water dispensers or feeding troughs [2]. Good ventilation, dry and clean litter, cleaning and decontamination of drinkers and feeders, and proper stocking density in poultry farms are the key managemental practices for prevention of the disease [33]. Special care is needed in rainy season when moisture is prevalent along with suitable temperature for sporulation of oocysts. In case of clinical outbreaks, it is essential to remove and isolate the clinically affected birds because they excrete of oocysts every day, thus endangering the health of other birds [34].

Prophylaxis

Coccidiostats are the prophylactic drugs used to prevent coccidiosis. An effective coccidiostat should target the schizogonic stage of the parasite while allowing the bird to develop immunity. Available drugs, either individually or in combination, include amprolium, ionophores, and sulpha quinoxaline [32]. Sulpha quinoxaline was the first drug administered in the feed continuously and at lower doses [35].

Vaccination and immunization

There are two types of vaccines available for immunizing chickens: attenuated vaccines and virulent vaccines [36]. Attenuated vaccines lack a part of the life cycle (less asexual reproductive cycles) of the original strain they were derived from, and as a consequence have a lower reproductive and pathogenic potential. This is a major advantage towards performance of virulent coccidial vaccines, but because of the lower reproductive potential of attenuated vaccines, production costs are significantly higher. The virulent vaccines are vaccines consisting of anticoccidial-sensitive strains and others made of more or less resistant strains. The main advantage of the live anticoccidial-sensitive strain vaccines is their ability to alter the level of resistance in a certain coccidial population [27]. Live vaccines, which use attenuated or virulent oocysts from various Eimeria species, provide a viable alternative to anticoccidial drugs for sustainable coccidiosis control in chickens. Several of these vaccines are commercially available worldwide. Attenuated vaccines are typically produced by passing the oocysts through embryonated eggs, as seen in E. tenella used in Livacox vaccines, or by selecting for early development, as in other Livacox species and Paracox vaccines [37]. A live attenuated vaccine is available as an alternative to coccidiostats for the control of coccidiosis in chickens.

Economic Importance of Poultry Coccidiosis

Poultry coccidiosis is considered the most economically impactful parasitic disease affecting poultry industries globally [10]. The impact of diseases on animal agriculture is usually evaluated in quantitative terms. In the poultry industry, the main negative effects of coccidiosis include lost revenues, expenses for vaccination and prevention, costs associated with eradication, decontamination, and restocking efforts [38]. The most problematic disease in the poultry industry worldwide is coccidiosis, mainly due to subclinical forms of diseases that interfere with body weight and feed conversion. It is estimated that 95.6-98.1% the economic losses in the commercial broiler industry are caused by coccidiosis [39]. This protozoan disease is responsible for great worldwide economic losses to the poultry industry with an estimated world annual loss of more than 3 billion USD [40]. These estimates account for the costs of prophylactic feed medication for broilers and broiler breeders, alternative treatments if the medication is ineffective, and losses resulting from mortality, morbidity, reduced growth rates, temporary declines in egg production in layers, and poor feed conversion in chickens that survive outbreaks [41].

Current Status of Poultry Coccidiosis in Somalia

Poultry coccidiosis has been reported with varying prevalence across different places of Somalia. Prevalence of Coccidiosis was reported by researchers as listed as 19 out 40 examined chickens (47.5%) by [42], (19.8%) by [6] and (15.04%) from Mogdishu, 13.36% and 12.34% from baidao and kismayo respectively by [43]. The variation in coccidiosis prevalence may be attributed to factors such as the timing of the study, differences in breed and management systems, as well as the potential development of drug resistance [44].

Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, poultry coccidiosis remains a significant and widespread protozoan parasitic disease that severely impacts poultry production, causing substantial economic losses globally, including in Somalia. Despite advancements in disease control and prevention, it continues to be a major issue. The disease is caused by host-specific, site-specific, and non-cross-protective protozoan parasites of the Eimeria genus, affecting the intestinal tract of chickens. It is more common in chickens raised under intensive production systems and primarily affects young, growing birds or those with no prior exposure. While various control measures have been implemented, the widespread use of anticoccidial drugs has led to the emergence of drug resistance in recent years. Finally, it is important to consider the agent, host, environmental, and management-related risk factors when designing control and prevention programs for poultry coccidiosis. To effectively manage the disease, proper hygiene and biosecurity measures must be implemented, along with the timely administration of prophylactic anticoccidial drugs at the recommended doses. Additionally, using a cage housing system in intensive production systems, rather than deep litter housing, can help reduce the accumulation of Eimeria oocysts and lower the risk of disease. Chickens of different age groups should not be housed together, recommended stocking densities should be followed, and an all-in, all-out production system should be practiced in intensive farms.

References

1. Olanrewaju CA, Agbor RY (2014) Prevalence of coccidiosis among poultry birds slaughtered at Gwagwalada main market, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria. Int J Eng Sci 3(1): 41-45.
2. Taylor MA, Coop, Wall RL (2007) Veterinary Parasitology (3^rd Edn). Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing 475-483.
3. Haug A, Gjevre AG, Thebo P, Mattsson JG, Kaldhusdal M (2008) Coccidial infections in commercial broilers: epidemiological aspects and comparison of Eimeria species identification by morphometric and polymerase chain reaction techniques. Avian pathology 37(2): 161-170.
4. Jadhav BN, Nikam SV, Bhamre SN, Jaid EL (2011) Study of Eimeria necatrix in broiler chicken from Aurangabad District of Maharashtra state India. International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 1(11): 1-3.
5. Obasi OL, Ifut OJ, Offiong EA (2006) An outbreak of caecal coccidiosis in a broiler flock post Newcastle disease vaccination. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 5(12): 1-4.
6. Mio JB, Mohamed MOS, Ahmed ZA, Salah HM, Abdulkadir BA, et al. (2022) Prevalence of Poultry Coccidiosis and Associated Risk Factors in Intensive Farm and Individual Small Holder Poultry Farm in Benadir Region, Somalia. Integrated Journal for Research in Arts Humanities 2(4): 71-76.
7. Awais MM, Akhtar M, Iqbal Z, Muhammad F and Anwar MI (2012) Seasonal prevalence of coccidiosis in industrial broiler chickens in Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan. Tropical animal health and production 44(2): 323-328.
8. Hadipour MM, Olyaie A, Naderi M, Azad F, and Nekouie O (2011) Prevalence of Eimeria species in scavenging native chickens of Shiraz, Iran. African Journal of Microbiology Research5(20): 3296-3299.
9. Dakpogan HB, Salifou S (2013) Coccidiosis prevalence and intensity in litter based high stocking density layer rearing system of Benin. J Anim Plant Sci 17(2): 2522-2526.
10. Allen PC, Fetterer R (2002) Recent advances in biology and immunobiology of Eimeria species and in diagnosis and control of infection with these coccidian parasites of poultry. Clinical microbiology reviews 15(1): 58-65.
11. De Gussem M (2007) Coccidiosis in poultry: review on diagnosis, control, prevention and interaction with overall gut health. In Proceedings of the 16^th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition: 253-261.
12. Morris GM, Gasser RB (2006) Biotechnological advances in the diagnosis of avian coccidiosis and the analysis of genetic variation in Eimeria. Biotechnology Advances 24(6): 590-603.
13. Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall R (2015) Veterinary parasitology. John Wiley & Sons.
14. Reid WM (1978) Coccidiosis. Diseases of Poultry (7^th Edn). Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA Pp: 784-805.
15. Kaufmann J (2013) Parasitic infections of domestic animals: a diagnostic manual. Birkhäuser Pp: 1-423.
16. Safari M (2001) Study on prevalence and Economic Impact of poultry Coccidiosis in different production system in Debrezeit and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Faculty of veterinary Medicine, Free University of Berlin, Debrezeit/Berlin, MSc theses Pp: 1-80.
17. Jordan F, Pattison M, Alexander D, Faragher T (2002) Parasitic diseases. In: Poultry Disease (5^th Edn) Hong Kong, WB Saunders Pp: 405-420.
18. Urquhart GM, Armour J, Dunkan JL, Dunn AM, Jennings FW (1987) Vet Parasitol. Longman Group UK Ltd, UK Pp: 1-345.
19. Fanatico A (2006) Parasite management for natural and organic poultry: coccidiosis. NCAT Agriculture Specialist, ATTRA Publication IP Pp: 1-245.
20. Hofstad MS (1984) Diseases of Poultry (8^th Edn). Iowa State Univ Press, Ames, USA Pp: 692-717.
21. Adhikari A, Gupta R, Pant GR (2008) Prevalence and identification of coccidian parasite (Eimeria spp) in layer chicken of Ratnanagar municipality, Chitwan district, Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum 23: 45-50.
22. Al-Quraishy S, Abdel-Baki AS, Dkhil MA (2009) Eimeria tenella infection among broiler chicks Gallus domestics in Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University-Science 21(3): 191-193.
23. Whitmarsh S (1997) Protozoan poultry diseases. Poultry Science Home page, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Mississippi State University.
24. Yun CH, Lillehoj HS, Lillehoj EP (2000) Intestinal immune responses to coccidiosis. Developmental & Comparative Immunology 24(2-3): 303-324.
25. Soulsby EJL (1982) Helminths, arthropods and protozoa of domesticated animals (No. 7^th edition, pp. xiii+-809pp).
26. Radostits OM, Gay C, Hinchcliff KW, Constable PD (2007) A textbook of the diseases of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and horses. Veterinary Medicine (10^th Edn). Bailliere, Tindall, London, UK Pp: 76-1580.
27. Mathis, GF, Broussard C (2006) Increased level of Eimeria sensitivity to diclazuril after using a live coccidial vaccine. Avian diseases 50(3): 321-324.
28. Marquardt WC, Demaree RS, Grieve RB (2000) Parasitology and vector biology. San Diego, California: Academic press Pp: 1-697.
29. Chapman, HD (2005) Perspectives for the control of coccidiosis in poultry by chemotherapy and vaccination. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Coccidiosis Conference: Pp: 99-104.
30. Vegad, JL (2004) Poultry diseases: a guide for farmers and poultry professionals. International Book Distributing Company.
31. Urquhart GM, Armour J, Duncan JL, Dunn AM, Gennings FW (2003). Veterinary para sitology. Blackwell science Ltd. UK 2: 170-176.
32. Kahn CM (2005) The Merck Veterinary Manual (9^th Edn). White house station, NJ, USA Pp: 2201-2206.
33. Ashenafi H, Tadesse S, Medhin G, Tibbo M (2004) Study on coccidiosis of scavenging indigenous chickens in Central Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 36: 693-701.
34. Roy HV (2007) Poultry diseases, diagnosis and treatment (3^rd ed.) New Delhi: New Age International Publisher Pp: 152-157.
35. McDougald LR (2003) Coccidiosis Diseases of Poultry (11^th ed.) Iowa. Iowa State Press Pp: 1001-1010.
36. Allen PC, Fetterer R (2002) Recent advances in biology and immunobiology of Eimeria species and in diagnosis and control of infection with these coccidian parasites of poultry. Clinical microbiology reviews 15(1): 58-65.
37. Arabkhazaeli F, Nabian S, Modirsaneii M, Mansoori B, Rahbari S (2011) Bio-pathologic characterization of three mixed poultry Eimeria species isolates. Iranian Journal of Parasitology 6(4): 23-32.
38. Thrusfield M (2005) Veterinary epidemiology. 3^rd. Cambridgck e, USA: Blak Well Science Ltd Pp: 225-228.
39. Bera AK, Bhattacharya D, Pan D, Dhara A, Kumar S et al. (2010) Evaluation of economic losses due to coccidiosis in poultry industry in India. Agricultural Economics Research 23(1): 91-96.
40. Dkhil MA (2013) Anti-coccidial, anthelmintic and antioxidant activities of pomegranate (Punica granatum) peel extract. Parasitology Research 112(7): 2639-2646.
41. Asadi IH, Asadi IM, Youssefi MR, Abou Hosseini TM (2015) Growth performance parameters in chicken experimental coccidiosis treated with Diclazuril and Clopidol: The need for assessing new   anticoccidial resources. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 9(3): 189-194.
42. Abdi–Soojeede MI (2020) Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Chicken (Gallus gallus domestics); Case Study Somali Poultry Farm in Mogadishu, Somalia. Research Institute of Jobkey University Pp: 78-86.
43. Mohamud AI, Mishra P, Yadav V, Mohamed Y (2020) Prevalence of poultry (Gallus domestics) diseases in southern Somalia. EC Veterinary Science 5: 43-48.
44. Tadesse C, Feyissa BD (2016) Poultry coccidiosis: Prevalence and associated risk factors in extensive and intensive farming systems in Jimma Town, Jimma, Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health 8(12): 223-227.