Abstract

Autism prevalence has grown in recent years with advances in early identification and diagnostic capacity [1]. Unfortunately, many autistic adolescents experience continued challenges in critical domains of adult life such as post-secondary education, employment, independent living, and community involvement [2-4]. The purpose of this review was to better understand the needs of autistic adolescents and to identify transition planning practices associated with effective planning and successful postsecondary outcomes. We reviewed 23 peer-reviewed studies published in English from 2013–2023. A synthesis of research on transition planning was conducted to highlight the perspectives of key stakeholders (including autistic youth and their families) and to offer a comprehensive understanding of how the transition process is implemented in practice. While no single approach to transition planning was consistently linked to postsecondary success, several recurring practices across studies show promise for developing effective plans [5,6]. Across studies, parents and caregivers shared there was limited attention to important life skills (e.g., self-advocacy, social skills, job readiness, independent living) in transition plans [7,8]. Person-centered and family-centered planning practices were associated with stronger engagement, clear postsecondary expectations, and improved coordination [9,10]. Transition planning was affected by current inequities and professional expertise [2,4]. The outcomes suggest additional research is needed to identify strategies to improve postsecondary outcomes [3,6].

Keywords: Autism; Transition Planning; Adolescents; Postsecondary Outcomes; Family-Centered Planning

Abbreviations: IEP: Individualized Education Program; PRECEDE: Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation; SSSC: Secondary School Success Checklist; NLTS2: National Longitudinal Transition Study-2; ID: Intellectual Disability

Post-Secondary Transition Planning for Students with Autism: A Scoping Review

In the last 20 years, there has been a major increase in the diagnosis of autism with the current statistic of 1 in 31 children aged 8 diagnosed in the US [1]. In 2000, that statistic was 1 in 150 [11]. With a higher prevalence of children being diagnosed with autism, the number of autistic young adults is growing. The prevalence is approximately 3.2%, and the research presents a bleak postsecondary outlook for this unique group considering their low levels of engagement in education, employment, independent living, as well as social, and community involvement [12-14].

National studies report differences between autistic young adults and their peers without disabilities, as well as differences within and across disability groups. Young autistic adults have lower rates of employment compared to their peers without disabilities. Employment rates for this population are 58% lower than peers with specific learning disabilities whose employment rates are 95% [15]. Roux et al. (2015) [16] reported that 66% of autistic young adults were not employed or enrolled in further education two years after exiting high school, and percentages increased to 42% at four years and 23% at six years. Young autistic adults exhibit lower levels of involvement in technical education, post-secondary education, and employment after high school [12].

Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS-2) shows that autistic students are the least likely to perform community-based functional skills, such as preparing meals, doing laundry, and shopping, in comparison to all other youth with disabilities [4]. Autistic adults often have difficulties in making friends, and may feel less self-directed and autonomous, as opposed to all other youth with an Individualized Education Program (IEP). The disparities extend across employment, daily living skills, and social outcomes, indicating that the transition IEP may be falling short of its purpose to effectively promote a successful transition into the community for autistic individuals [13,17].

For adolescents with disabilities, the transition to adulthood presents a set of unique challenges as they are going from an educational system in which services are guaranteed for students with disabilities (i.e. special education) to an adult system where services are eligibility driven (e.g. disability services, day services, residential services), not guaranteed, and often under-funded [18]. An estimated 61-87% of autistic young adults continue to live with their families as they grow older. A small proportion, about 9% to 17%, live independently or with non-family members. When compared to adults with other developmental disabilities, autistic adults are more likely to live with their parents or caregivers and less likely to live on their own [19].

Only 39% of autistic students in the US graduated from a postsecondary educational institution, including community colleges, vocational schools, technical schools, or 4-year colleges. In comparison, 52% of the general population and 41% of all students with disabilities did so. Autistic adolescents had particularly low enrollment rates in two-year and four-year colleges at 32%, which is one of the lowest rates among various special education disabilities and significantly lower than the 70% rate for general education students [20,21]. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that persists throughout an individual’s lifetime, and the effects of autism are different for each individual [22]. The symptom severity can range from mild to severe for autistic individuals, and symptoms often change over time.

Autistic individuals have impairments and/or delays with communication, social interactions, and restricted/repetitive behavior and interests. Autistic individuals tend to thrive on routines and predictability, and the often-unpredictable nature of transitions can be a source of confusion and anxiety. Research suggests that impairments in communication and social interaction for autistic adolescents cause challenges to participation in the postsecondary planning process as it requires a significant amount of social interaction and communication [17,21]. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA) requires that any student in the US who receives special education services must have a transition plan in place to facilitate their move to activities beyond school.

IDEA specifies that a student’s IEP should incorporate a transition plan starting at the age of 16, although certain states, such as Kansas and Texas, initiate this planning at age 14. Transition planning should include a coordinated series of actions that enhance academic and functional progress to help them transition from school to post-school activities, which can encompass postsecondary education, vocational training, adult services, independent living, and community participation. IDEA highlights the significance of considering the student’s strengths, preferences, and interests as part of the transition services. Effective transition planning (including the students, caregivers, school staff, community providers, etc.) is essential in helping learners with autism in maximizing their potential to achieve positive post school outcomes [13].

While many individuals contribute to the transition process, parents play a particularly critical role beyond the involvement of the adolescent. Parents of autistic adolescents often assume primary responsibility for caregiving demands into adulthood, as a significant proportion of autistic adolescents continue to live at home or require ongoing support to live independently [23]. Research has indicated that a high percentage of parents attend IEP meetings that involve transition planning, but many parents reported their input was given little attention [24]. Family engagement in transition planning has been associated with positive postsecondary outcomes [25-24], the findings suggest more needs to be known about actively engaging families of autistic students in transition planning beyond attendance at meetings. With the poor postsecondary outcomes experienced by many autistic adolescents, analysis of the research literature related to transition planning is important to learn how this population can be served better.

Our review intended to identify and describe the postsecondary transition needs that parents and caregivers of autistic adolescents have as well as the qualities of effective transition planning that promote positive postsecondary outcomes. The purpose of this study is to provide all IEP team members involved in the transition planning process for autistic adolescents with an understanding of family concerns and knowledge of effective practices during the planning process. We addressed the following research questions.

(1) What concerns do parents and caregivers identify with regards to postsecondary needs for their autistic adolescents?
(2) What are the qualities of effective transition planning for autistic adolescents? Methods

Participants

To determine a priori whether a study was included in this review of the available literature, at least one autistic participant. The search terms used to solicit results were Autism and Asperger. Eligible studies included middle and high school adolescents (14- 22 years) receiving postsecondary transition planning services. IDEA 2004 requires Individualized Education Plan teams to start transition planning at the age of 16 [27], but some state laws in the United States require that transition planning start earlier. The minimum age of 14 was chosen because this is the youngest age that any state requires planning to start. The cut-off age of 22 years was chosen because a student with a disability can receive services until the age of 21 years, and this means the student can be in school up to the age of 22 years.

Literature Search

The following databases were searched for applicable studies: ERIC and Academic Search Complete. Included were only relevant qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods design studies (2013 to 2023) in which postsecondary transition planning for autistic students was the focus. Several search keywords and descriptors were used to obtain the correct participants and relevant studies, including Autism, parent, secondary, and transition. The reference lists from the articles included in the electronic search were examined to identify additional relevant studies.

The following a priori selection criteria was used: (1) A qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods study published in a peer review journal, in English, between 2013 and 2023. (2) At least one participant diagnosed with autism between the ages of 14 and 22 years participating in postsecondary transition planning. The search resulted in the consideration of 115 studies with 23 meeting inclusion criteria. The electronic search yielded 96 studies. The reference research produced 19 additional studies for consideration. An email request for additional relevant studies was sent to the first author listed in each of the 23 included studies. No additional studies were identified. Table 1 presents an overview of the studies used in the present review.

Excluded Studies

A total of 92 studies were excluded from the present review because of the following reasons: The study was published in a language other than English (n = 2). The participants were not between the ages of 14 and 22 (n = 31). The focus of the study was not on pre-graduation transition planning (n = 46). The participants were not identified as having Autism (n = 2). The study did not use quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods design (n =11).

Research Literature Reviewed

In the present scoping review, studies were categorized by the research methods used: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Of the 23 studies reviewed, ten used qualitative methods, ten used quantitative methods, and three used mixed methods approach. Results

Qualitative Studies

Bell et al. (2017) [28] conducted an exploratory study on the postsecondary transition experiences of six autistic adolescents in Ireland to understand the experiences of adolescents before and after transitioning to higher education. Data collected through semi-structured interviews with adolescents and their parents underwent analysis to identify prevalent themes. The researchers note that autistic adolescents generally report positive relationships with transition professionals; however, they also expressed stress related to uncertainties about the future and the prospect of leaving secondary school. The participants often reported difficulties related to disclosure of disability, lacking social interaction skills and initiating support services within higher education..

The participants in the study reported they needed assistance from their parents to guide them through this process. The study found little evidence of a formal transition planning process for these learners, and transition professionals had very limited knowledge of available community services. The implications drawn from study emphasize the need to provide support for the development of self-determination skills and assist autistic learners in developing the social interaction skills they will need in higher education settings. The study reinforces the need for ongoing training and professional development programs for transition professionals and educators which includes knowledge about available community and university services and strategies for supporting autistic students during the transition.

Cheak-Zamora et al. (2015) [29] used focus groups to learn more from autistic adolescents (n = 13) and caregivers (n =19) about the transition planning experience. The social, educational, and vocational needs and experiences were evaluated. The authors used semi-structured question guides, and the researchers applied grounded theory strategies to identify themes. The study results show that autistic adolescents and parents experienced fear and anxiety related to the transition. There was a noted absence of adequate support services to assist them in coping with the associated stress. Both the youth and caregivers perceived that planning was not individualized; they reported a lack of educational and vocational services to support the transition, with instances of services being unhelpful. The findings suggest a need for individualization in transition planning. The author emphasizes the need to tailor to individual strengths, weaknesses, and interests of adolescents (Figure 1).

The findings reinforce the need for effective collaboration with transition stakeholders (i.e., educators, therapists, community organizations) to develop more personalized and comprehensive plans. In their 2019 study, Chen et al. employed individual interviews and focus groups involving 18 parents to understand how parental hopes and expectations for autistic adolescents are expressed during the transition to adulthood. The authors used semi-structured interview protocols to collect data analysis using the grounded theory approach. The study found eight adult life domains identified by parents (community mobility, community participation, living situation, peer relationships, personal safety, post-secondary education, self-care, and work).

The parents in the student reported apprehension and fears regarding the transition to adulthood because they were uncertain about realistic expectations and did not have clear guidance related to next steps. The authors also point out that it is important for the transition team to fully understand the parent’s expectations for their child’s future and to engage in realistic conversations that help parents evaluate and adjust expectations so the team can develop realistic and achievable goals. The study emphasizes the need for all stakeholders to provide parents with additional resources, information, and assistance to better understand what adult life might look like for their autistic child, what resources are available and specific steps parents can take to help their child through the process.

Making these changes would help parents and caregivers make informed and confident decisions in planning for the future. Cheong and Yahya (2013) [30] used case study methods to investigate postsecondary transition needs of adolescents with learning disabilities including autism in Malaysia. The objective was to identify factors facilitating the development of effective plans in schools to promote positive transition to employment. The study gathered data through interviews of two special education teachers, four youth with learning disabilities (including one with autism), five coordinators of non-governmental organizations, four employers of individuals with learning disabilities (including one autistic employee), and four parents of individuals with learning disabilities (including two with autism).

Informal observations of autistic adolescents in school and at their place of employment were used to gather data. Data analysis, utilizing triangulation, showed seven factors associated with effective transition plans (vocational training, job coaching, self-advocacy skills training, collaborative support system, career guidance and transition assessment, and trained transition personnel). The authors recommend that stakeholders prioritize the need for autistic learners to develop independent living skills related to successful transition such as communication, problemsolving, time management, financial literacy, and personal hygiene. The skills are important and needed to succeed in the workplace, independent living and success in post-secondary life.

Integrating all identified factors into the transition planning process increases the likelihood that adolescents will be wellprepared for postsecondary employment and independence. Essex and Melham (2019) [31] investigated the factors influencing the transition of young female adolescents with High Functioning Autism (HFA) from secondary school to higher education in the United Kingdom. The researchers utilized semi-structured interviews with four female adolescents and four educational staff, adopting a phenomenological psychological approach in reporting data. The results showed variability in the transition support provided, and the focus for all plans primarily focusing on academic progression. The authors emphasize the important role caregivers should play in creating and organizing transitionrelated opportunities.

The author suggests that the responsibility for transition planning and support falls heavily on parents. While it may be true that in some cases, parents may have the time, expertise and resources to help their autistic child successfully transition to post-secondary life, this expectation can also lead to disparities based on variations in parent knowledge and resources. The researchers recommend the more formalized and standardized support systems beyond parental involvement to ensure that students, regardless of their parents’ resources, have access to needed opportunities and services. Hatfield et al. (2017b) [32] used semi-structured interviews to collect data from nine parents of autistic adolescents and four professionals in Australia.

The goal was to learn more about the perspectives of the parents and professionals and their transition planning needs. The data collected was analyzed using a constant comparison approach, and four themes were identified. 1) Real-Life Experiences and Career Exploration, 2) Adolescent Involvement, 3) High Expectations, and 4) Preparedness and Planning. The study results show that engaging adolescents in real-life experiences and career exploration (i.e., work experience and volunteering) may help to motivate learners to more fully participate in the transition process. The authors emphasize the need for more participant “buy in” and they recommend that IEP teams take steps to more actively include autistic adolescents in their own transition planning. Encouraging these unique learners to consider their strengths and interests and to set high expectations for themselves is very important and can help these learners to be more prepared and develop a well-defined plan.

Knudson (2023) [33] used a qualitative analysis approach to assess the effectiveness of a Canadian transition planning program for autistic adolescents. The study examined insights from teachers and students about their experiences with transition planning programs. The researchers collected through interviews, observations, and document reviews. The study shows that participants basically thought the program was beneficial, but they identified their parents as the primary support for helping them through the transition to adulthood (not the transition program or staff). The adolescents did indicate the program gave them a sense of belonging and support, but they did not believe the transition program provided long term support. The study findings suggest that parents play an important role in the transition process, and the group is often underutilized. Transition planners must acknowledge and prioritize the caregiver involvement. The authors suggest transition teams and stakeholders provide resources and guidance to better support students.

Lee et al. (2014) [34] used a meta-synthesis approach to examine trends in parental perspectives on academic transitions for autistic learners as they moved from early childhood to elementary school, elementary to secondary, and secondary to post-secondary education. The researchers used case studies, individual interviews, surveys, and open-ended inquiries to gather data. The goal was to identify transition planning trends. The results showed a shift towards more focused and individualized transition planning in later transitions, but the reason for this trend was unclear.

The researchers note the importance of developing customized transition plans that include an individual’s interests, strengths, weaknesses, and goals. The study also emphasizes the important role parents play in developing meaningful transition priorities for their child. Stakeholders must make the time to establish and maintain strong communication and collaboration throughout the transition process. The transition process must include identifying parent concerns and priorities and considering them as the team develops the student’s plan. Transition plans must include skill development in independent living, social interaction, and work-related skills, with hands-on training integrated into the curriculum. Access to support services, such as speech therapy and counseling, is also recommended to address specific challenges and promote skill growth.

Mitchell and Beresford (2014) [35] completed a study using semi-structured interviews with 18 high functioning autistic adolescents in England to better understand their experiences during the transition to college. Some adolescents in the study had already transitioned to college, others were in the process of preparing. Participants shared their experiences about transferring to adult services, young adulthood, and preparation activities from school to college. The goal was to identify how best to support these adolescents during the transition, and the data was analyzed using a thematic approach. Results indicated participants appreciated the involvement of professionals in helping them plan for the transition to college. The most valuable activities reported were related to information on potential postsecondary pathways and opportunities to visit colleges.

The study also shows that students view their parents as the most important source of support. The authors emphasize the importance of actively involving parents in the transition process, and the recommendation is that transition stakeholders provide more comprehensive information on post-secondary options, help with college visits, and recognize the impact the activities can have on supporting students. The study findings also reinforce the need for transition professionals to recognize that parents are often the primary source of transition support so there is a need for effective and meaningful collaboration and communication with caregivers to maximize the potential of successful transition. Strnadova et al. (2016) [36] used interviews to understand the transition experiences reported by parents and teachers of adolescents with an Intellectual Disability (ID) or autism attending a special school in New South Wales.

The study involved data collection from 13 teachers and 14 caregivers of adolescents with ID or autism, and content analysis was used for data analysis. The results revealed that themes such as collaboration between the school and family and access to information about postsecondary opportunities emerged for both parents and teachers. Many parents in the study shared the belief that planning should have begun earlier, and they did not feel they had sufficient information on postsecondary options and services for their child. The researchers suggest that transition professionals should work with educators to initiate the transition planning process for students at an early age. Establishing and maintaining open lines of communication as well as an overall, more cooperative approach to transition plan development can lead to more meaningful and successful transition plans.

The authors also note that more information about postsecondary opportunities and services is needed so educators can help parents to better understand and access comprehensive resources and information related to available postsecondary options, support services, and vocational training opportunities so they can better support their children. Another important finding was that autistic adolescents were not often active participants in creating their transition plan. Educators must actively engage students in the planning process, taking into consideration preferences, abilities, and goals to enhance the person-centered nature and effectiveness of the transition plan.

Quantitative Studies

Griffin et al. (2014) utilized survey and transcript data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) to identify predictors of the involvement in post-secondary transition planning for 320 autistic adolescents. NLTS2, a nationally and federally funded 10-year study, tracked the experiences of a cohort of students with disabilities as they transitioned into adulthood. Regression analysis was employed for data analysis. The study reveals that autistic adolescents have low levels of engagement in transition planning. Among them, those who exhibit lower expressive language and self-advocacy skills were the least inclined to participate.

African American students were significantly less likely to participate in transition planning compared to Caucasian students. The findings suggested that providing instruction on transition planning did not affect the involvement of students. An implication of the study is the need for educators, parents, and professionals to tailor support and interventions to address barriers to participation (e.g., communication). The study indicated that frequent transition-related conversations between parents and adolescents were associated with increased involvement in transition planning. Encouraging and supporting effective communication between parents and adolescents is highlighted as a beneficial practice.

Hatfield et al. (2018) [37] used the Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation (PRECEDE) model, a cost-benefit evaluation framework, to conduct a needs assessment on the transition planning process for adolescents with autism in Australia. The study examined predisposing, reinforcing, and enabling factors influencing postsecondary transition for autistic adolescents. The researchers gather data from an online questionnaire with closed- and openended questions, involving 26 autistic adolescents, 83 parents of a child with autism, and 53 professionals working with a autistic students. The study findings showed that individualized and strengths-focused approaches, along with factors such as adolescent motivation, anxiety, and insight were identified as predisposing factors (i.e., cognitive mindsets or ways of thinking that bring about behavior). Reinforcing factors (i.e., promote and reward continued engagement in behavior) included support and guidance, skill development, and real-life experiences.

Enabling factors (i.e. external and environmental conditions that impact on people’s ability to adopt behaviors) were a clear plan with coordination, scheduled meetings, and formal documentation. The researchers show the importance of addressing anxiety and reduced motivation during the transition planning. Transition professionals must use strategies to help manage anxiety about the future and enhance motivation to meaningfully engage learners in their own transition process. The findings also showed that participants may have had a reduced understanding of transition planning importance that might adversely impact transition planning. The study recommends that effective transition programs and support services must address these autism-specific factors.

Hartfield et al. (2017a) [38] conducted a quasi-randomized control trial with autistic adolescents in Australia, specifically those enrolled in years 8 to 11. The purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of the Better Outcomes & Successful Transitions for autism (BOOST-A) online program in improving the self-determination of autistic adolescents. A secondary objective was to evaluate how the program influenced quality of life, access to environmental support, career planning and exploration, as well as transition specific self-determination. The study lasted 12 months, and the intervention group (n = 49) utilized the BOOST-A program. The control group (n = 45) used regular transition practices. Data collected at baseline and after 12 months were analyzed using an independent sample t-test and the Mann- Whitney U test. The primary goal of improving self-determination in autistic adolescents was not achieved; the BOOST-A program did not result in significant improvement in self-determination for autistic adolescents. Several important findings were observed in secondary areas.

According to the reports from parents, the participants using the BOOST-A program showed significant improvements in three domains (opportunities for self-determination at home, career exploration, and transition-specific self-determination). Career exploration was improved based on participant self-reports with those who used the BOOST-A program. The study suggests the program may be valuable in providing opportunities for practice in decision making, goal setting, and problem solving at home. The outcomes have important implications for helping autistic adolescents in career and transition planning. The authors suggest potential value of the program in specific areas even with its limited overall impact on self-determination. Holmes et al. (2018) [39] used an online survey involving parents of autistic adolescents to assess family and adolescent factors influencing caregiver expectations of postsecondary outcomes.

The goal was to find out if parent expectations predicted engagement in transition-related activities. The data was collected from 298 autistic adolescents (141 females, 157 males) and was categorized based on IQ levels (average or above average, borderline, and below 70). The analysis used multiple linear regression and the Pearson Chi-Square test. The findings show (after controlling IQ, gender, age, and household income) parents with higher expectations for post-secondary outcomes were more likely to engage in transition-related activities. The results also showed that lower expectations were often associated with more severe autistic symptoms and an IQ below 70. Males were twice as likely to participate in volunteer or work experiences. The results suggest that parent expectations influence engagement in transition-related activities. Transition professionals must use this information to individualize transition support and guidance. Therefore, parents with lower expectations may need more intensive support and resources. Key transition stakeholders must understand factors that can shape parental expectations. There is a need to help educators identify at-risk individuals and provide targeted assistance. Educators might also consider potential gender disparities to be identified when developing transition programs and support services.

Hume et al. (2018) [40], used the Secondary School Success Checklist (SSSC) designed to support transition planning for autistic learners to gather information on the transitionrelated skills of autistic adolescents and assess the perceived importance of these skills from the perspectives of adolescents, caregivers, and educators. The SSSC covers transition domains such as independence, self-management, and social interaction. Participant data was collected from 539 adolescents before implementation of a comprehensive treatment model. The participants with autism were given the adolescent version of the SSSC assessment, while the parents and teachers completed the parent-teacher version. The findings indicated significant differences in how adolescents, parents, and teachers rated the skills of the adolescents.

Adolescents tended to rate themselves as having more skills than reported by parents and educators, with educators generally assigning higher ratings than parents. The findings show the importance of involving all stakeholders (adolescents, parents, and educators) in the assessment and planning process to obtain a comprehensive and accurate understanding of student abilities and areas that need further development. Truly individualizing transition planning to accommodate these perspectives is very important and connected to effective transition programming. Identifying any discrepancies in skill ratings can help the transition team to develop more individualized plans addressing the specific needs and transition goals of students.

The Kirby et al. (2019) [41], study used data gathered from semi-structured interviews and surveys from autistic adolescents and their caregivers to better understand perceptions about activities related to preparing for adulthood. Data was collected from 15 families at 20 different points over a 10-month period, and the focus was on the amount of time spent in transition activities, parent satisfaction with the activities, and parent ratings of transition preparedness. The study method was a multilevel modeling approach. The results show that the transition-related activity families engaged most often in the form of discussions about the future. However, most parents reported only moderately satisfaction with the discussions.

Almost half of the parents desired engagement in social activities, specifically real-world social experiences like social clubs, as a transition-related activity, and the average time spent in social activities was the highest among all transition-related activities. Social activities also had high parent satisfaction and were the transition activity most associated with parents reporting an increased feeling of transition preparedness. The researchers suggest that real-world social experiences (i.e., social clubs and other social activities) can positively impact transition preparedness. The authors discuss the importance of educators including social skill development and opportunities for social interaction into transition plans. The findings also reinforce the role of parents and their satisfaction with discussions about the future. To improve transition outcomes for this unique group, transition professionals must strengthen their collaborative relationships with parents.

Lipscomb et al. (2017) [4], used the findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) to better understand the characteristics and experiences of students with IEPs during the transition process. The authors compare the similarities and differences in experiences and background characteristics across the 12 disabilities defined by IDEA 2004 during the transition years. Data from the NLTS2 study was collected through surveys of students with IEP’s and their parents. The results show that autistic students, students with intellectual disabilities or multiple disabilities were the least likely to engage in four of five high school experiences (proficiently handling everyday life skills, engaging in weekly social interactions with friends, taking a college entrance or placement exam, and gaining valuable experience through paid employment) linked to positive post-secondary outcomes.

The study results show a significant difference in opportunities and experiences available to these students during the transition years. The authors recommend certain extracurricular activities might offer these students more opportunities to participate and benefit from these experiences. Transition professionals must provide individualized support and resources to address the differences in high school experiences. The support can include individualized instruction, social skills training, and assistance in preparing for college entrance exams or gaining work experience. Identifying and addressing the potential transition barriers is important. Transition professionals should be aware of this knowledge gap and work collaboratively with all transition stakeholders to better understand underlying factors and develop strategies to promote participation among students with autism, an intellectual disability, and multiple disabilities.

The Taylor and Henninger (2015) [42], study conducted interviews with 39 parents of an autistic adolescent and utilized youth psychological evaluations to assess the services these adolescents were receiving in their last year of high school, as well as identifying needed services that were not being provided. The study goal was to determine patterns of service access for adolescents in their final year of high school and identify the adolescents that were most likely not receiving needed services. A questionnaire included 16 services (e.g., speech/language, mental health, transportation) chosen because they are part of the NLTS2 dataset, allowing some comparisons to the nationally representative sample. The results indicated that autistic adolescents were underserved when compared to the NLST2 study participants. The most common unmet service need was in career counseling/job skills training and occupational/life skills training.

Adolescents with a comorbid psychiatric diagnosis and lower adaptive behavior levels were found to be receiving more services. Unmet needs were greater for racial/ethnic minorities, those who had a high number of behavior problems, and those whose parents experienced high anxiety. The study highlights a significant disparity in the provision of services for autistic adolescents in their final year of high school. The findings show there may be systemic barriers that prevent autistic individuals from accessing services they need. The information is important for policymakers, educators, and healthcare providers to target interventions and support to this unique group to make sure they receive the necessary services and assistance.

Wei et al. (2016) [3], conducted a study to better understand the relationship between participation in transition planning and goal setting and college enrollment for autistic adolescents. The study utilized data collected for the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) at two different points in time to assess the relationship between participation in transition planning, having a primary goal of college enrollment on the transition plan, and actual enrollment in college for autistic adolescents. NLTS2 data collected through surveys and questionnaires from parents and adolescents along with high school transcripts and survey responses from educators familiar with the adolescent’s high school programming, were analyzed using logistic regression to estimate propensity score.

The results show that enrollment in a 2 or 4-year college was higher for adolescents who participated in transition planning and had a primary goal of college enrollment in their transition plan. This might mean that transition planning, which involves setting educational and career goals, is an important component in facilitating successful transition to post-secondary education. All transition stakeholders should recognize the importance of comprehensive and truly individualized transition planning for this unique group of learners. Transition professionals must work collaboratively with families and other members of the transition team to provide necessary support and resources to enable effective participation in transition planning (individualized guidance, counseling, resources).

White et al. (2021) [6], used a randomized control trial of the Stepped Transition in Education Program for Students with Autism (STEPS), involving autistic adolescents aged 16 to 25. Participants were randomly assigned to either participate in STEPS or follow a transition as usual approach. The study evaluates the feasibility, including its acceptability to participants and fidelity of implementation, as well as its effectiveness. Results indicated that participants in the STEPS program found it to be helpful and beneficial. Greater gains in transition readiness were observed for students still in high school, and these gains were sustained even after completion of the STEPS program.

The findings suggest the STEPS program might be a positive addition to transition planning. The participants and their parents perceived the program as beneficial. Educational institutions might consider implementing similar programs or interventions. The STEPS program has the potential to lead to better outcomes for this unique population in relation to readiness and preparedness for life after high school, which may help to improve their quality of life. The research emphasizes the effectiveness of intervention and individualized support. Educational institutions should take steps to prioritize transition planning and support at an earlier age to maximize the long-term success of autistic individuals in post-secondary education, employment, and independent living.

Mixed Method Studies

Hagner et al. (2014) used a mixed methods approach to examine person-centered planning for autistic adolescents and their families. The purpose of the study was to identify strategies and support facilitating the engagement of these adolescents in person-centered transition planning meetings. Data collection utilizes observation and documentation by transition facilitators, focusing on adaptations and accommodations to aid autistic adolescents in participating effectively. Data was examined using an open-coding method and descriptive quantitative analysis. The study findings show that, out of the 47 teenagers involved in the planning process, 29 were engaged in various adjustments and modifications (i.e., personalized preparation meetings, rapport-building interactions with the facilitator, flexible meeting structures and options for virtual or remote participation, alternative communication methods) help them participate more effectively in the planning process.

Participants with lower adaptive behavior tended to use accommodation more often, but there was not a significant difference in accommodation use between lower or higher adaptive behavior levels. The findings reinforce that for this unique group, challenges in communication and social interaction may make transition planning more demanding. The authors recommend transition professionals remember that all autistic adolescents (regardless of adaptive behavior levels) benefit from accommodation and personalized support. Lo and Bui (2020) [44], used a mixed methods approach to better understand the transition planning experiences of Chinese and Vietnamese parents of autistic adolescents and intellectual disabilities. The study included 25 parents (13 Chinese Americans; 12 Vietnamese Americans). Data was collected through surveys and unstructured open-ended interviews. The findings show that parents valued the opportunity to engage in transition planning, but they often lacked sufficient information to meaningfully participate.

The researchers suggest that transition professionals who recognize the unique cultural perspectives and values of each group may better support families throughout the planning process. Transition professionals must include parents in the decision-making process and make sure that communication is understandable (regardless of cultural or language background). The findings emphasize the need to provide clear, comprehensive and accessible information to parents and to be proactive in sharing information about transition planning, available services, and resources in user-friendly materials. Educators should receive training and professional development in cultural competence and family engagement strategies.

White et al. (2016) [45], used a mixed methods approach to investigate the needs of college bound or college enrolled autistic adolescents. The study investigated the needs and difficulties faced by autistic adolescents in postsecondary education. Data was gathered through an online survey completed by 67 parents, educators, and students with focus groups involving 15 autistic students and educators. Qualitative and quantitative data was analyzed independently and then synthesized. Thematic analysis was used for both the qualitative and quantitative data.

The findings show that participants experienced key area challenges related to emotional regulation, socialization, selfregulation, intimacy, and the transition to independence. The challenges and needs identified from the data are organized into broader themes, such as social needs, self-determination, and self-regulation needs. The authors emphasize the importance of preparing autistic adolescents for the transition by emphasizing the development of non-academic skills, such as social skills and self-advocacy. Educational and support programs must prioritize these aspects to assist students in effectively navigating social and self-regulation challenges.

Summary

Approximately 44% (n = 10) of the studies included used a qualitative methods approach. Approximately 44% (n = 10) of the included studies used a quantitative methods approach. Approximately 13% (n = 3) of the included studies used a mixedmethods approach. Fourteen of the studies were conducted in the United States, and nine studies were conducted outside of the United States. The results suggest parents have several concerns when it comes to the needs of their autistic child, including developing functional life skills (job skills, social skills, self-advocacy), access to community services, collaboration with community agencies, and individualized transition planning.

Person-centered and family-centered approaches showed promise with effective approaches for educators to use during the transition planning process for autistic adolescents. While the transition planning research specific to autistic adolescents is limited currently, the findings in this review provide some understanding of family perspectives with regards to the postsecondary needs of autistic adolescents and promising transition planning qualities. Future research can build on these findings to improve transition planning for autistic adolescents.

Discussion

This review examined the available literature on transition planning for autistic adolescents. My search resulted in the consideration of 115 publications of which 23 met the inclusion criteria. Transition planning is mandated by IDEA (2004) [46], but IDEA provides minimal guidance on creating and implementing a transition plan. Research can bridge the gap left by IDEA by providing professionals involved in transition planning with evidence on how to create an effective plan. A significant amount of research on postsecondary transition planning exists for students with disabilities in general, but the research on postsecondary transition planning specific to autistic students is limited.

The poor postsecondary outcomes for autistic students would suggest the need for further research on transition planning. Quality planning is needed for autistic adolescents and their families to support a positive transition to adulthood. Autism is a lifelong condition, and parents of autistic children often spend a significant amount of time caring for their child well into adulthood [19]. Parents are a vital component of transition planning for autistic adolescents, and these parents need support and quality transition planning to help prepare their adolescents for adulthood. The research surveyed indicates that many parents and caregivers of autistic adolescents identified functional life skills as a major post-secondary concern and need. Parents want their autistic children to build skills related to self-advocacy, social engagement, employment, and independent living.

It does not seem too surprising that parents were more concerned with functional life skills than they were with academic skills given that autistic individuals have deficits with communication and social interactions. Research supports the need to address social and communication difficulties for autistic individuals as studies have shown these challenges to be a barrier to employment, attending college, and community involvement [19,20]. Despite the need for developing functional life skills, several of the studies reviewed indicated that this is an area of unmet need for autistic adolescents with too much focus being put on academic progress and not enough on functional life skills.

Many parents were concerned with getting their children engaged in planning for adulthood. Many parents wanted their adolescent to talk about their future, explore options, and make plans [6,36]. Many parents wanted their adolescents to be engaged in transition-related activities as well as be provided with information on community resources that would help prepare their adolescents for adulthood. Some of the studies reported that autistic adolescents reported having a high level of anxiety related to the postsecondary transition. Adolescents and parents viewed visits to colleges and information on post-secondary pathways as helping the adolescents feel more prepared for the transition.

Many studies noted a heavy burden on parents to seek out resources and transition related opportunities (visiting a college, informational sessions on colleges), which is troubling because less connected and resourceful parents may be missing out on opportunities for their child. The research pointed to a need for educators to be more knowledgeable of community resources and opportunities so they can better inform families. Although the research did not identify any studies that showed qualities of effective transition plans that positively and predictably promoted postsecondary success, it did identify some encouraging factors that appeared to have a positive impact on the planning process.

The family-centered approach had encouraging results with increases in student self-determination, expectations for the future, and vocational decision-making during the planning process, and the person-centered approach showed promise with getting team members on the same page with regards to postsecondary expectations as well as engaging the adolescent in the transition process. Developing family and school relationships as well as collaborating with outside agencies were recognized as vital components of the transition planning process. Accommodation to support participation during person-centered planning shows promise as a quality of effective transition planning.

Limitations

Indeed, several limitations of the included studies in this review may restrict the generalizability and scope of the findings. A major limitation is the dependence on small sample sizes of available studies in literature, as the studies lacked many characteristics about participants. Participants are homogeneous, generally Caucasian, highly educated, and from specific geographic regions, limiting the generalizability of the findings to the wider cohort of autistic adolescents and their families in transition. Another limitation is selection bias as participants were often recruited or self-selected, typically online through surveys.

Thus, the self-selection process, in a way, allowed part of the sample to are not necessarily representative of the entire population of autistic adolescents undergoing transition planning. Using online surveys restricts participation among those who can get online. Potential problems with self-reporting demographic data and transition experiences include interpretation issues, social desirability bias, and difficulty with introspection. Self-reporting is beneficial for being accessible and lower cost.

The search procedures might have excluded relevant research based on search criteria, language restrictions, and sources of publication. The document needs to be updated regularly to remain relevant. Although they included studies outside the United States, their findings may not be fully generalizable. Including adolescents with autism who have a wide range of symptoms, cognitive abilities and levels of severity makes generalization of these findings to all subgroups in the autism population impossible. This complexity makes it hard to generalize the results.

Conclusion

The findings from this scoping review emphasize the necessity for an individualized, holistic, and culturally sensitive approach to transition planning for autistic adolescents. The active collaboration of professionals, parents, and the provision of ongoing support and resources are essential for ensuring a successful transition to adulthood. The process involves achieving post-secondary education, gaining employment and empowering these learners to lead independent lives [19,21]. The results suggest parents have several concerns related to the transition needs. Functional life skills such as self-advocacy skills, job skills, social skills, and independent living skills were major postsecondary needs that parents wanted addressed in the transition plan [17,23].

Parents wanted to be better informed about community services that would help support the postsecondary transition (Lo & Bui, 2020; Strnadova et al., 2016) [44,36]. Family-centered and person-centered planning showed promise as effective approaches to transition planning for autistic adolescents (Ruble et al., 2019) [25]. Because autistic adolescents demonstrate deficits with communication and social interactions, they need accommodation to help them engage in the transition planning process [32]. There is a need for educators involved in the transition planning process for autistic adolescents to be informed of the post-secondary concerns parents have as well as the qualities of effective transition planning that promote positive postsecondary outcomes [20,47]. Further research on the key components of transition planning for autistic adolescents that result in improved postsecondary outcomes, in contrast to the challenges outlined in the introduction, is warranted. The research findings must be shared with educators and service providers to support the development of practical and successful transition plans for autistic individuals [6,25,48].

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express gratitude to their families for their support throughout this process. Special thanks to Dr. David Hansen, Dr. Meagan Patterson, Dr. Jennifer Kurth, Dr. Bruce Frey, and Dr. David Orosco from the University of Kansas for their guidance and expertise.

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