Abstract

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects social interactions, communication, and behavior. ASD presents significant challenges for patients, families, and health professionals and is characterized by a wide range of symptoms and severities. This study aimed to broaden the understanding of ASD through genetic and neurobiological research, enabling more effective intervention strategies. Genetic studies have contributed to this understanding, whereas neurobiological research has explored areas such as brain connectivity, gene expression, neurotransmission, and synaptic plasticity. Recent findings have revealed structural brain differences in individuals with ASD, including a significant increase in volume in certain regions during childhood, followed by modifications in adolescence, such as a reduction in the cerebellum. Early diagnosis is crucial, but it often occurs late, negatively affecting patient prognosis. The use of medications such as antipsychotics and antidepressants aims to mitigate specific symptoms, although they are often associated with significant side effects. In addition, ASD often coexists with other conditions such as ADHD and sleep disorders, in addition to the complexity of treatment. Various therapeutic approaches, including behavioral therapies, acupuncture, and cannabinoids, have been explored to improve the quality of life of affected individuals. However, developing personalized interventions remains challenging because of the diversity of the autistic spectrum. Future research aims not only to better understand the biological and genetic basis of ASD but also to translate this knowledge into more effective treatments tailored to patients’ individual needs.

Keywords: Brain bases; Brain connectivity; Interventions; Neurobiology; Neuroplasticity; Therapeutic perspectives; Autism spectrum disorder

Introduction

This review will examine the topic of Specific Learning Disorders (SLDs), which are of increasing relevance in both school, social and work settings. An overview of ASDs, (dyslexia, dysorthography, dysgraphia and dyscalculia) will be given, outlining the main characteristics of each. The emotional challenges that people with ASDs face on a daily basis, both in the school setting and in social and work inclusion, and the challenges they face will also be explored. Legislation related to DSAs will be attended to, analyzing Law 170 of 2010, which was necessary to protect, in particular, pupils and students with DSAs. The role of school actors in implementing the provisions of the law will be explored, with a special focus on the Personalized Learning Plan (PDP), a fundamental document that enshrines the agreement between school and family to ensure an appropriate school path for pupils with DSA. This paper, therefore, in addition to analyzing Specific Learning Disorders, also aims to offer practical insights and operational strategies to promote the inclusion and well-being of pupils with SLDs in the school as well as in society.

Specific Learning Disorders

What is Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a Specific Learning Disorder (SLD); Stella [1] defines dyslexia as “a disorder that hinders the normal process of interpreting the graphic signs by which words are represented in writing.” In common sense, dyslexia is still associated with poor intellectual abilities (IQ) or even cognitive delays. These misconceptions have no basis in scientific research, research, documents, how there is no connection. The causes of dyslexia are still uncertain but the scientific literature supports that it is due to a neurobiological cause with inherited characteristics. Sixty-five percent of children with dyslexia have a family member with the same disorder [2]. Dyslexia is a disorder of reading, and the ability to understand what is written in a text; this process then includes decoding graphic signs and transforming them from the written to the oral code. Dyslexia, manifests itself during reading aloud, during the stage of transforming graphic signs into sounds, and persists during reading in a low or silent voice. Dyslexic children present their first difficulties with the beginning of schooling by coming into contact with reading and writing precisely: difficulties in blending sounds, identifying the positions of sounds within words, confusing or reversing letters, word substitution and, often, short-term memory problems in pronouncing sounds in the correct order. All of these difficulties are the consequence of reading incorrectly, inaccurately and, above all, very slowly. Going into specifics he makes mistakes and has serious difficulties in the following areas.
• Phonological errors: confuses and interchanges letters that sound similar (p/b, m/n, v/t, c/g, r/l); omits or adds letters incorrectly.
• Lexical errors: read the first letter or letters and then “guesses” the word.

When reading, he also has difficulty in “scrolling” and viewing text, that is, he often skips lines or words, despite reading a word correctly. Dyslexia, can be acquired and developmental. Acquired dyslexia is due to a triggering event such as brain injury, and prior to this event possessed normal reading skills. This type of dyslexia occurs in a different temporality than developmental: the term “acquired” indicates that dyslexia occurs later in life instead of being present from birth. Developmental dyslexia is an “inborn” disorder, present from birth, and is manifested in difficulty during the process of learning to read: it involves those who never learned to read correctly during the early stage of schooling, and includes both children and adults. At the learning stage, the child has great difficulty in recognizing the letters of the alphabet and turning them rapidly manner the transformation between graphic signs and sounds.

There are three subtypes of developmental dyslexia:
a. morphological-lexical (or superficial), in which the defective pathway is the lexical pathway, the child has difficulty in recognizing words as they appear, in visual memory letters and words, and in their visual sequential analysis;
b. phonological, the child presents difficulties in oral language production with difficulties in converting grapheme to phoneme;
c. deep (or mixed), if both of the above is compromised.

Dysorthography

Dysorthography, for the purposes of Law 170/2010 [3] is defined as follows: “specific writing disorder manifested in difficulties in transcoding language processes.” Dysorthography is a disorder that manifests itself in the correct writing; it concerns spelling, that is, the ability to write correctly representing the words of one’s own language, being able to transform the sounds language into letters and organize them into written words correctly and accurately. As the National Directions point out, correct spelling is a basic skill and should be learned in the early stages of literacy [3]”. As far as spelling is concerned, on the one hand it is essential that it be acquired and automated safely in the early school years, as it becomes difficult to learn it later in life; on the other hand, spelling correctness must be constantly monitored at all school levels.

Difficulties affect several areas

Difficulties in sound segmentation, that is, problems in separating word sounds into syllables, and consequently making the process of transcription more difficult.

Persistent spelling errors: reversal of letters within a word (e.g., writing “d” instead of “b,” “m” instead of “n”), the addition or omission of letters and syllables.
-difficulty memorizing spelling rules that make it difficult to apply them correctly when writing.
-poor fluency in writing due to all the difficulties listed above, which can lead slow and hesitant writing, compromising the coherence of the text.

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia, for the purposes of Law 170/2010 is defined as follows: [3]. “specific writing disorder that manifests itself in difficulties in graphic realization”. The word “dysgraphia” comes from the Greek “dys” meaning “lack” and “graphia” meaning “manner of execution of characters and symbols in writing practice.” Thus, this term indicates a severe difficulty in the graphic execution of handwriting. Dysgraphia can negatively affect school learning with regard to writing; it is a learning disorder that involves and impairs the ability to write words and numbers. The writing process follows a set of skills and competencies that the individual must introduce to accomplish it: oculo-manual coordination, visual-spatial perception, motor skills aimed at movements akin to writing, speed and motor planning. In the dysgraphic child, these skills are lacking or deficient, leading to a range of learning difficulties. Below are some of the difficulties they may encounter in school:
• Unclear and legible writing, with messy and irregular handwriting;
• Problems in writing fluency, slowness caused by planning and motor difficulties;
• Difficulty organizing space on the page, writing unevenly without maintaining even spacing between words and difficulty centering the text on the page;
• Incorrect grip of the pen or pencil;
• Ricalc or overlapping of letters;
• Stretch interruption and variable word spacing.

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia, for the purposes of Law 170/2010 is defined as follows: [3] “specific disorder manifested by a difficulty in the automatisms calculation and number processing.” Dyscalculia concerns the ability to understand and use mathematical and numerical concepts, a persistent difficulty in correctly acquiring basic mathematical skills, this leads to affecting various aspects: mathematical calculation, understanding numbers, problem solving and mathematical operations. Like the other disorders, dyscalculia, is not about a person’s intelligence, but permanent difficulty and condition that can significantly hinder school performance daily life.

Initially when the child starts counting, he/she enacts skills that were previously pre-verbal (discriminating small quantities, estimation process) to verbal skills and/or abilities (i.e. associating labels with quantities).

During the acquisition of the “counting” stage, 5 stages can be recognized and identified: [4].
1. numbers are pronounced as a series of words, in which the child uses them without awareness of either the correct order or quantity.
2. number-words are pronounced in the correct order but only unidirectionally starting with “one,” the child is able to pronounce the number sequence correctly only in ascending order;
3. sequence can be started from any known point, the child is able to count from a number further on by recognizing the before and after in the series of numbers;
4. number-words take on their own identity, the child has internalized that the number words refer to a precise quantity.
5. number word sequence can be used for various purposes bidirectionally, the child is now able to use the number sequence back and forth for various purposes (e.g., sums).

The acquisition and awareness of principles for counting is not easy, but in the case of children with dyscalculia certain errors may persist over time.

Gelman and Gallistel [5], identified the most common mistakes made by children with these difficulties:
-over counting and under counting, while a child is counting items there is no correspondence between pronouncing the number in sequence and identifying the item to be enumerated.
-omissions, while a child is counting skips one or more items making the calculation underestimate the actual numerosity of the set (this is when the items to be counted are in a scattered order and not well arranged).
-double counting, while counting calculates an object multiple times.
-incorrect word-number sequence, does not respect the ascending order of numbers and uses an incorrect number sequence.

We can identify two profiles of dyscalculia:

a. Deep dyscalculia concerns a weakness in the cognitive structure deputed to the processing of numerical components (basic skills: subitizing i.e., immediate recognition of small quantities, comparison, quantification). For example, a child who shows persistent difficulties from the beginning in discriminating quantities in a correct form, reordering numbers in an increasing way, comparing two sets.
b. Procedural dyscalculia is related to deficits in procedural and computational aspects, e.g., a child who persists in errors in number-crunching during a written calculation, affecting in procedural errors.

Procedural dyscalculia is more common than deep dyscalculia: errors in the computational system come into play at this stage.
-Error in retrieving arithmetic facts: fails to retrieve information in long-term memory, such as multiplication tables.
-Errors in maintaining and retrieving procedures: fundamental to solving all mathematical operations.
-Error in applying procedures: e.g., column operations, number placement, application borrowing and carryover.

The Dsa Regulations

The roots of the 170/2010 law on DSAs: Law 170 [3] is based on the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 26 states, “Everyone has the right to an education. Education should be free, at least at elementary and fundamental levels. Elementary education should be compulsory. Technical and vocational education should be generally usable, as well as higher education should be accessible on the basis of merit”. In the same year, the Italian Constitution came into force, which, in Articles 3, 9 and 24, enshrines the right to equality, promotion of cultural development and legal protection of these rights [6]. The DSA law, passed many years later, begins with the words “protection of the fundamental rights of the person” and refers to the rights mentioned above. In essence, it adheres to the following principles:
1. The state must ensure the removal of obstacles that prevent the full development of the person: therefore, all children have the same right and equal opportunities for learning.
2. It should promote the development of scientific culture and research, deepening fields of study on the functioning of specific learning disorders, including using suitable compensatory tools to ensure the equal opportunities mentioned in Article 3 of the Constitution.
3. It is necessary for families to be aware of what is stated in the Law, because if these rights are denied, families can take action by protecting their children’s right to study.

Taking a look at the legislative development, in 1977, Law No. 517 [7], was promulgated, which, in Article 7, highlights the need to include individualized interventions in order to be able to meet the needs of each individual person: “in order to facilitate the implementation of the right to study and the promotion of the full formation of the personality of pupils, educational planning may include supplementary school activities organized for groups of pupils in the class or different classes also for the purpose of implementing individualized interventions in relation to the needs individual pupils.” [7]. Later, in 1992, Framework Law 104/1992 [8], for assistance, social integration and rights of people with disabilities was approved, the right to include them in schools of all levels promoting inclusion was guaranteed. In conclusion, the closest roots to the principles of the Law on DSA are based in Presidential Decree No. 275 of March 8, 1999, in which educational autonomy is given to schools and the right to learning is enhanced for all students; and in Law No. 53/2003 [9], in is explicitly emphasized the right to personalization of the learning path.

The 170/2010 law: On Oct. 8, 2010, Law No. 170 [3]. “New Regulations on Specific Learning Disorders in Schools” was enacted, providing written protection for people with specific learning disorders, this Law, guarantees access to study for all children and young people with DSA, offering schools the opportunity to examine the teaching strategies necessary to foster the full development of each student, allowing them to express their potential according to their individual characteristics. Law 170 is a piece of legislation that has had a significant impact; it has set itself the goal of guaranteeing the fundamental right to education for all students, who present with DSA, so that no one is excluded. Another goal is to encourage early diagnosis of DSAs, providing the adoption of rehabilitative educational pathways, recognizing the importance of early identification of learning difficulties to foster the resources needed to overcome them, improving their future academic prospects, but also their selfesteem and self-confidence.

The Act aims to ensure adequate training for teachers, raise awareness among parents on issues related to specific learning disorders. The objective is to reduce the relational and emotional difficulties of children with ASDs, recognizing that emotional well-being is necessary and fundamental to academic success, and to ensure this it is essential to create welcoming, inclusive and respectful learning environments; it also strives to promote equality of opportunity for capacity development in both social and professional settings; everyone deserves the chance to realize their potential and contribute meaningfully to society.

Subsequent to Law 170/2010, for implementation of the regulations, the Ministerial Decree of July 12, 2011 came out where, in the Guidelines the following is written: “The new regulations on specific learning disorders in the school environment urge schools once again to place the person at the center of their activities and care. The definition and implementation of educational and didactic strategies must always take into account the singularity and complexity of each person, his or her articulated identity, aspirations, abilities and fragilities, at the various stages development and training.” Miur [10].

The school’s task is to identify early those pupils who may have a Specific Learning Disorder, where they have difficulties in the areas of reading, writing and calculation. The next task is to create and implement remedial and reinforcement activities aimed overcoming these difficulties. If there is no improvement, and the difficulties persist over time, teachers should notify the family and advise them to go through a diagnostic process. In addition to the suspicion, of course, the school and teachers should communicate to families the type of difficulties encountered, making them explicit so that a correct diagnosis can be ensured. Subsequently, should the disorder be certified and ascertained, the family will have to communicate this to the school, and teachers will have to implement individualized, personalized teaching, with the use of compensatory tools that consider the characteristics of the person with ASD, drawing up within sixty days the Personalized Learning Plan (PDP).

Protection and support of pupils with DSA: The relevant legislation is as follows: Law No. 170/2010 “New regulations on specific learning disorders in school settings.” It recognizes dyslexia, dysgraphia, dysorthographia and dyscalculia. Article 5 focuses on supportive educational and didactic measures and reports that “students with a diagnosis of SLD are entitled to benefit from appropriate dispensatory and compensatory measures of didactic flexibility during education and training cycles and in university studies.” The Implementing Decree and the “Guidelines for the Right to Study of Students with DSA,” [11], provide guidance on actions to be implemented for the protection and support of students. Pupils who present with DSA, but do not have a disability, do not have support teachers; it is the teachers who must provide the compensatory materials. Educational and technological tools, replace or facilitate the deficient performance, assist the pupil with DSA, who has a difficulty in performing the task, however, do not facilitate the task from a cognitive point of view. Among the most widely used are the calculator, speech synthesis, video reading programs with spell checker, tables, forms and concept maps, MIUR (Ministry of Education and Merit), reported that the number of pupils diagnosed with a learning disorder in the 2019/2020 school years was 5.3 percent and 5.4 percent in 2020/2021.

The duties of the Institute DSA Referent: The referent’s functions are referred in the area of raising awareness of DSA issues, and supporting colleagues involved in the educational implementation of the proposals. The referent should be a teacher who must, after undergoing personal training courses and acquiring specific and appropriate training in the issues, become the point of reference within the school. In detail, in relation to the Board of Teachers, he or she must fulfill the following functions: provide information inherent current regulations and give indications on compensatory tools in order to create an appropriate and personalized teaching intervention; offer support to colleagues in the search for teaching and assessment materials, also taking care of the bibliographic and aids endowment within the Institute; finally, “act as a mediator between colleagues, families, students (if they are of age), health services operators, and accredited training agencies in the territory.” The designation of the Institute referent inherent to DSAs is not a formal institutional obligation, but is left in the planning autonomy of each individual school.

The duties of teachers: The Guidelines report that although there is an Institute referent for DSA, every teacher has the task and duty to possess the appropriate knowledge and skills in this area. Elementary school teachers must be able to attend to all stages of pupils’ school learning, paying particular attention to risk indicators in the stages of reading-writing acquisition. In fact, before reporting the difficulties encountered to the family, they must ensure that these difficulties are persistent even after implementing strategies aimed at recovery. Subsequently, once the family receives the diagnosis of DSA, issued by the relevant AUSL, teachers must draw up, no later than sixty days, a PDP (whose acronym stands for Personalized Learning Plan) that highlights the reinforcement teaching strategies, dispensatory measures and inherent compensatory tools designed recovery.

The tasks of the family: The Guidelines also specify the roles that families should have in the educational process, assigning them the task of collaboration with school and services. The family, after deciding to have their child evaluated by the AUSL, has the right to choose whether to share the diagnosis with the school; if it is shared, it is necessary and fundamental that the family participate actively in the definition and implementation of the individualized or personalized paths provided by Law 170 [3] and formalized in the PDP. In addition, the Guidelines encourage parents to support their child’s motivation and commitment both at school and at home, they are asked to assist them in the management of homework and preparation of school material, with aim of fostering autonomy and independence to the student. In order to facilitate a solid, constructive and cooperative relationship with families, the task of the school and teachers must be to organize periodic meetings to share and coordinate educational interventions, the importance of which is fundamental to ensuring continuous communication and effective cooperation between the school and families doing so ensures the best possible support for students with DSA.

Students’ homework: The Guidelines also refer to the rights of students with DSA, emphasizing that they are the main protagonists of all educational actions taken. Students with DSA, therefore, have the right to be supported, and to be led to become aware of their own modalities and learning strategies most akin to themselves, in order to be able to achieve their fullest skills and potential. Like all other students, students with DSA have a duty and task to engage in school work; depending on their age, they are also called upon to collaborate with teachers to identify together the most useful and effective ways of learning for themselves. This kind of collaboration facilitates not only their school learning, but also promotes an inclusive and collaborative learning environment, where each student can feel free and contribute to his or her own growth by focusing on his or her own potential.

The tasks of the universities: Given the steady increase in students with DSA enrolled in university courses. Article 5 of Law 170/2010 [3] stipulates that “students with DSA are guaranteed, during their school and university education and training, appropriate forms of verification and assessment, including with regard to state and university entrance exams as well as university exams.” The Guidelines reveal that about half of students with ASD enroll in university without having received a diagnosis beforehand; as a result, universities are also required adopt interventions aimed at identifying possible cases of ASD among students. The presentation of diagnostic certification at the time enrollment allows students to access admission tests with the granting of additional time, up to 30 percent more, depending on the type of test to be taken. Speaking of dispensatory measures, on the other hand, the Guidelines recommend considering the use of oral tests as an alternative to written tests; in addition, it is suggested that the evaluation of written tests be based form rather than spelling. It is also possible to reduce amount of study material without, of course, compromising its quality.

Personalized Education Plan: Speaking of PDP, we can use both the term personalization and individualization, because unlike IEP (for students with disabilities), the methodologies, timing and tools must be varied, but the goals are same as for the class. The PDP is a contract between the family, the school and the social-health institutions, aimed organizing the path in which the dispensatory and compensatory tools to support the academic success of students with DSA are made explicit; this must be stipulated for each subject, so as to ensure that the student achieves the goals on par with his or her peers. Computer aids are increasingly present in classrooms, and should not be seen as a difference, but rather as a support and an asset not only for children with difficulties, but for the whole group.

The PDP, ascertaining a specialized diagnosis, must be drawn up by the class council: the coordinator has the role of meeting with families and maintaining contact, while each individual teacher is required to contribute to the document by providing details related to his or her subject, including or her own observations of student needs, indications of the compensatory and dispensatory tools that will be used, and a description of the verification and assessment methods that will be implemented. Teachers must then personalize their teaching approach, ensuring that the strategies proposed are appropriate to support students to ensure their success in school. The PDP must be drafted and revisited at the beginning of each school year, by the end of November, and it must be verified at least twice a year at the time of school’s performance reviews. The PDP, is a useful tool for teachers to be able to make explicit how they work, is indispensable for the family of the student with DSA to be able to support the child’s learning process. Law 170/2010 [3] and the related Guidelines do not make explicit in a formal way the obligation to draw up a PDP, but they emphasize with the conjunction “also” reported in Article 5 the obligation to draw up a document that makes explicit the interventions to be implemented planned by the group of teachers. For this reason, there is no standardized and identical PDP for all, each school has the freedom to arrange a planning document that it deems most appropriate towards the student with DSA, always referring to the Guidelines.

In them, in fact, we find indications that must be compulsorily contained:
• master data of the student;
• type disorder;
• Individualized educational activities;
• Customized educational activities;
• compensatory tools used;
• Dispensatory measures taken;
• Customized forms of verification and evaluation.

The main goal in constructing a PDP, therefore, is to identify an effective system to bring the pupil with ASD to overcome the barriers of his disorder to facilitate his learning. Very often, unfortunately, this plan is conceived by schools as a list of compensatory tools and dispensatory measures, overshadowing instead the ways in which it is intended to intervene to ensure the pupil’s educational success. For an effective PDP, therefore, the definition of the interventions to be implemented must be the basis of the planning; to do this, it is essential that the school promote metacognitive processes that lead the student with ASD to an awareness of his or her potential and to find the most effective method study and learning for himself or herself.

Special educational needs: The number of students who need special attention, for a variety of causes and reasons, is constantly increasing. The Ministerial Directive identifies this area as educational disadvantage, which includes various issues and is named the area of Special Educational Needs (BES).

Within this macrocategory we find three main subcategories:
1. Disabilities, certified under Law 104, where the presence of a support teacher is provided, with a number of hours commensurate with the student’s need.
2. Specific Learning Disorders and Specific Developmental Disorders, for ASDs as reported in the previous paragraphs, Law 170/2010 (3) is provided, but within this area are also made to include deficits language, nonverbal skills, motor coordination, attention and hyperactivity (ADHD).
3. Socioeconomic, linguistic or cultural disadvantage, in which since there is no certified or diagnosed problem, generally this type of special educational need is limited in time, due to multiple situations of disadvantage that require a special period of educational attention. This situation of disadvantage may include, for example, recently immigrated pupils who have not yet learned the Italian language, or children who are in a difficult social, economic, or cultural situation, resulting in multiple disruptions at the school level. Again, if the teaching board deems it necessary, a PDP can be used for a certain period of time, as provided for in Ministerial Note No. 2563/13. These subcategories represent the wide range of needs that can affect students’ schooling, requiring individualized instructional approaches and specific strategies to ensure that each pupil benefits from the best opportunities learning and personal development.

A child, therefore, has a BES when his or her functioning learning, development and education encounters some problem and therefore, needs specific intervention aimed inclusion. Inclusive teaching embraces neurodiversity, and the latter leads teachers to use new teaching styles. To do this, adaptations in teaching must be implemented. Dario Ianes [12], identifies five levels of goal adaptation, in relation to the level of severity of the deficit, proceeding from the least severe to the most severe. The first level is “substitution”: the goal remains unchanged; the accessibility of language codes is modified. The second level is “facilitation”: the objective is recontextualized but not diversified, i.e., they are offered with more motivating and interactive technologies (educational software); in interactive teaching contexts such as cooperative learning groups, tutoring, labs; with more extended time frames; with different stimuli. For example, for a child with ASD use concept maps to synthesize information, accompany the use of maps with pictures that highlight the main concepts.

The third level is “simplification”: the complexity of the objective is lowered by acting on one of its components, changing the vocabulary or the complexity of the way used to communicate, reducing the conceptual complexity with lower orders of more concrete elaboration with more accessible examples.

The fourth level is “breaking down into foundational cores”: identifying foundational and accessible activities at the level of the pupil’s learning difficulty. The fifth level is “participation in task culture”: having the pupil with severe disabilities experience the optimal cognitive challenge, the development of a product, to help them participate in meaningful moments. In this case, the goal is more social rather than cognitive, insisting on the emotional climate of the classroom by encouraging participation in the cultural atmosphere, deriving important stresses on a personal level. Inclusive planning must also take into account adaptation to the environment as well as strategies and materials in order to truly create an inclusive environment by seeing the differences each child in the class as an asset and not as diversity. For true protection of people with Specific Learning Disorders (SLDs), targeted strategies must be put in place to establish an inclusive and welcoming educational environment. Particular emphasis has been placed on implementing teaching practices that promote active participation and inclusion of all students, regardless of their learning difficulties, enabling them to overcome cognitive barriers and express their full educational potential.

Inclusion

Article 3 of the Italian Constitution states, “All citizens have equal social dignity and are equal before the law, without distinction of personal and social conditions. It is the duty of the Republic to remove obstacles of an economic and social nature which, by effectively limiting freedom and equality of citizens prevent the full development of the human person and the effective participation of all workers in the political, economic and social organization of the country. This fundamental principle is the basis of the concept of school inclusion. School inclusion, on the contrary, values the diversity of each student, turning it into a strength that enriches the entire school community. The learning environment adapts to individual needs, promoting an environment that meets the needs of all pupils. To understand the current concept of school inclusion, it is necessary to consider a historical and normative excursus, characterized by debates, decrees and laws that have focused on the value of diversity as an opportunity for growth all.
-1977: Approval of Law No. 517, which establishes the right education and education for all persons with disabilities, stating that “the exercise of this right cannot be prevented by learning difficulties or other difficulties resulting from disabilities related to the handicap”.
-1992: Introduction of Law No. 104, the first legislation protect the disabled, with the aim of their social and educational inclusion.
-2009: Drafting Guidelines for using the International Classification of Functioning (ICF) as a model for classifying disability, establishing the acceptance diversity as a source of enrichment and the importance of paying attention to everyone’s needs.
-2010: Promulgation of Law No. 170 on “New Regulations on Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) in Schools,” which introduces innovative tools and methodologies for a personalized and functional educational pathway.
-2012: Issuance of Ministerial Directive “Intervention tools for pupils with Special Educational Needs (BES) and territorial organization school inclusion” by the Miur, recognizing that a pupil may have special needs even in the absence of a DSA diagnosis.
-2017-2019: Publication and amendment of the Inclusion Decree, which introduces the new Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs), requiring class councils to create specific educational plans for each pupil with disabilities.

These stages represent the evolution of the concept of school inclusion in Italy, highlighting a steady progress toward a conception of inclusion that aims to unite rather than divide, embracing diversity rather than marginalizing it. It is a natural process aimed at ensuring the full realization of the person within the school context and fully realizing the right to citizenship. The next paragraphs will present three learning units in different disciplines, designed as inclusive teaching proposals to be implemented in the classroom. These units are characterized by the adoption of teaching strategies, use of compensatory tools, the integration of technologies support learning and engaging activities. The goal is to ensure the active participation of students in the educational process, promoting optimal learning:
-Cooperative learning: involves studying in small groups, a mode that facilitates memorization of concepts through interaction and develops responsibility, positive interdependence and social skills.
-Tutoring: a way in which some pupils become tutors; fosters new social contacts interactive learning, which is also useful for those who as tutors.
-Problem solving: involves solving problems using knowledge already acquired pupils’ interest and self-esteem.
-Case study: involves analyzing a real problem described in detail; this an activity that stimulates pupils to find effective ways approach.
-Laboratory teaching: involves practically reproducing a learned theoretical concept allows students to apply known or newly learned strategies.
-Flipped classroom: a mode whereby students consult multimedia materials (selected by the teacher) at home on a topic to prepare for the topic to be discussed in class.
-Discussion: this methodology develops language, logic and behavioral skills useful for active citizenship.
-Role playing: in this mode, pupils play roles in front of a group; it is useful because it helps them understand social dynamics and different points of view.
-Reality tasks: a mode that involves solving situationsproblems similar to real life-prepares pupils for social interactions and promotes cooperation and reflection on one’s own behavior.

To implement an inclusive lesson, attention must also be paid to several key aspects:
• Communicative: clearly express the message using multiple communicative codes, such as concept maps, videos, tables and pictures.
• Cognitive: adapting content to different levels of difficulty and driving conscious change in students’ cognitive processes.
• Managerial: manage the class with clear, shared rules and provide constructive feedback.
• Participatory: ensuring everyone’s participation, keeping attention and motivation high.

There are many resources that can be used during an inclusive lesson, from interacting classmates to adapting communication style and materials, taking into account the different levels of abilities and cognitive styles present in the classroom.

Conclusion

The topic regarding ASDs is one that is still pervaded by misinformation, causing prejudice and stereotypes. One of the most widespread false beliefs is to believe that ASDs are a disease and can be “cured.” Another widespread belief due to general ignorance on the subject is that DSAs are a “fad” of the moment and that many years ago did not exist. Thanks in part to special laws protect DSAs, schools are showing special attention by being able to identify children with DSAs early, and it is for this very reason that diagnoses in this regard have increased. Children with DSA are labeled as lazy and listless their difficulties allegedly caused by lack of effort and concentration. Another widespread stereotype is the alleged low intelligence of children with DSA. since number studies have confirmed that the presence of DSA is not related in any to an intellectual deficit, but rather assume normal cognitive ability. There is often a tendency in common parlance to use the concepts of integration and inclusion as synonyms, when in fact they have a multiplicity of different nuances, especially in school education. School integration aims to make pupils with disabilities feel part of a group, reducing differences, but without adapting the environment according to their needs.

One of the main challenges for today’s teachers is to implement inclusive teaching that adapts to the needs of each pupil in an individualized way. Implementing inclusive teaching strategies in lessons is not always easy, especially due to limited resources and time. Inclusive teaching benefits all students, not only those with DSA or other BES, for whom inclusive teaching strategies, included in the PDP or IEP, should always be considered. Teachers should be clear about the goals and recipients of inclusive teaching to create a school environment in which all pupils feel accepted, understood and valued. The recipients of inclusive teaching are all students, with special attention to those with special educational needs. However, strategies such as cooperative learning or the use of educational technology can be useful for all pupils. The inclusive teaching strategies promote respect for diversity and communication, which are useful for ensuring conscious and responsible learning and harmonious development in pupils. A targeted teaching approach can facilitate the inclusion and school success of pupils with DSA, contributing to their overall development and to overcoming the barriers they encounter in their educational journey.

References

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2. Shaywitz SE (1998) Dyslexia. New England Journal of Medicine 338(5): 307-312.
3. Gazzetta Ufficiale N. 244 del 18 Ottobre 2010 (LEGGE 8 ottobre 2010, n. 170) Nuove norme in materia di disturbi specifici di apprendimento in ambito scolastico.
4. Lucangeli D (2012) La discalculia e le difficoltà in aritmetica: guida con workbook: strategie per una didattica inclusiva, schede e strumenti dal sistema del numero al sistema del calcolo per i DSA, Giunti Scuola.
5. Gelman R, Gallistel CR (1978) The child’s understanding of number. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
6. UN, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26, 1948).
7. Law August 4, (1977) No. 517, Article 7 (GU n. 224 del 18-08-1977)
8. Papeo F, Legge 104: la guida completa, Legge 104: guida completa alla normativa Altalex
9. Law March 28 march, No. 53 (GU n.77 del 2-4-20030)
10. https://www.miur.gov.it/documents/20182/51310/DM+254_2012.pdf.
11. Decree (Ministerial Decree 5669/2011) and the "Guidelines for the Right to Study of Students with DSA maggio 2024).
12. Ianes D (2005) Bisogni educativi speciali e inclusione. Valutare le reali necessità e attivare tutte le risorse, Trento, Erickson.