Abstract

Inter- and transgenerational trauma has emerged as a critical framework for understanding how historical violence and structural inequalities shape psychological outcomes across generations. However, dominant trauma models remain largely Eurocentric, often neglecting African sociocultural realities and indigenous epistemologies. This study examines the role of psychology in addressing inter- and transgenerational trauma within African contexts, with a focus on integrating indigenous knowledge systems into contemporary frameworks. A qualitative literature review design was employed, drawing on interdisciplinary sources from psychology, anthropology, and African philosophy published between 2015 and 2025. Thematic synthesis and interpretive analysis were used to examine conceptualizations of trauma, mechanisms of transmission, and intervention approaches, with critical attention to epistemological biases in existing literature. Findings indicate that trauma in African contexts is fundamentally collective, historically embedded, and transmitted through intersecting psychosocial, cultural, and biological pathways. Indigenous healing systems that are grounded in spirituality, communal practices, and relational ethics, emerge as central yet underutilized resources for recovery. The analysis also reveals persistent tensions between Western clinical models and African ontologies, highlighting limitations in cultural relevance, accessibility, and theoretical scope. The study therefore concludes that a decolonized, African-centered psychological framework is essential for effectively addressing intergenerational trauma. Such a framework must integrate scientific rigour with cultural grounding, foreground community and relationality, and align healing with broader social justice imperatives. Advancing psychology in Africa requires epistemic pluralism, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the legitimization of indigenous knowledge systems to support sustainable, contextually relevant healing across generations.

Keywords:Intergenerational Trauma; Transgenerational Trauma; African Psychology; Indigenous Knowledge Systems; Decolonization; Collective Healing; Cultural Resilience; Epistemic Pluralism

Introduction

The concept of intergenerational or transgenerational trauma has gained increasing scholarly attention as researchers seek to understand how trauma extends beyond individual experience to shape the psychological, social, and biological realities of subsequent generations Kellermann [1]; Bombay [2]. Intergenerational trauma refers to the transmission of distress from individuals directly exposed to traumatic events to their descendants, even when those descendants have not experienced the original trauma firsthand Kellermann [1]; Danieli [3]. Foundational studies, particularly among descendants of Holocaust survivors, have demonstrated that trauma can persist through familial narratives, parenting patterns, and biological processes, including epigenetic modifications that alter stress responses across generations Yehuda [4]; Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. Contemporary scholarship has broadened this lens to include populations affected by slavery, genocide, forced migration, and systemic discrimination, emphasizing the multi-layered and enduring nature of collective trauma across historical contexts Sotero [6]; Mohatt [7].

In Africa, the salience of inter- and transgenerational trauma is particularly pronounced given the continent’s enduring legacies of colonialism, enslavement, apartheid, ethnic conflict, and political violence Atallah [8]; Bamford [9]. These historical disruptions are not relegated to the past; rather, they are embedded in ongoing socio-economic inequalities, identity struggles, and community dislocation Ratele [10]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [11]. However, despite the magnitude of these experiences, African perspectives remain underrepresented within global psychological discourse. Dominant frameworks that are largely shaped by Western epistemologies tend to privilege individualistic and clinical interpretations of trauma while marginalizing communal, spiritual, and relational dimensions central to African ontologies Wilson [12]; Ratele [10]. This epistemic imbalance risks producing partial or inadequate understandings of trauma within African contexts, limiting both theoretical advancement and the effectiveness of interventions.

Emerging research suggests that trauma transmission operates through complex and intersecting pathways, including psychosocial conditioning, cultural memory, and biological embedding Yehuda & Bierer [13]; Kirmayer [14]. Yet, much of this work remains grounded in Euro-American contexts, with limited empirical and theoretical engagement with African knowledge systems and healing practices Mkhize [15]; Eagle & Kaminer [16]. Indigenous African approaches, and often emphasizing collective healing, ritual practices, spirituality, and interconnectedness, tend to offer alternative paradigms that challenge reductionist models of trauma as solely individual pathology Wessells [17]; Nwoye [18]. While there is growing recognition of the importance of culturally responsive psychology, there remains insufficient integration of indigenous epistemologies into mainstream trauma research and practice. This gap is further compounded by the historical marginalization of African scholarship and the persistence of colonial legacies within academic knowledge production Chilisa [19]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [11].

This study addresses these critical gaps by examining the role of psychology in healing inter- and transgenerational trauma within African contexts, with particular emphasis on integrating indigenous knowledge systems into contemporary frameworks. Accordingly, it aims to critically analyse dominant models of trauma transmission and their limitations in African settings; explore indigenous African healing practices as viable and complementary approaches to trauma recovery; and propose a decolonized, culturally grounded psychological framework that aligns with African worldviews and lived realities. By foregrounding African perspectives, this study seeks to contribute to a more inclusive and contextually relevant psychology capable of addressing the enduring impacts of historical trauma and supporting sustainable healing across generations.

Literature Review

Conceptualizing inter- and transgenerational trauma

Inter- and transgenerational trauma is increasingly theorised as a multidimensional construct encompassing psychological, relational, and biological transmission processes across generations Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. Early psychoanalytic and family-systems models emphasized intrapsychic inheritance and attachment disruptions, while contemporary frameworks adopt ecological and systemic lenses that situate trauma within layered sociohistorical contexts Kellermann [1]; Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. Mechanisms such as maladaptive parenting, disrupted attachment, and trauma communication patterns remain central, yet recent advances in epigenetics suggest that biological embedding may also mediate vulnerability Yehuda [4]. However, the relative contribution of these pathways remains contested, with critics cautioning against reductionist biological determinism that overlooks structural violence and lived experience Fassin [20]. Despite conceptual advances, much of the empirical literature is grounded in Euro-American and Holocaust-survivor populations, raising questions about crosscultural validity Kirmayer [21]. Instruments such as the Historical Intergenerational Trauma Transmission frameworks have limited validation in African contexts, where trauma is often collective, historically embedded, and mediated through communal identity WHO [22]. This highlights a critical epistemological gap and the need for contextually grounded conceptualizations that integrate African sociocultural realities, including colonial legacies and ongoing structural inequalities, rather than retrofitting Westernderived models.

Historical and socio-political contexts in africa

African experiences of intergenerational trauma are inseparable from histories of colonialism, racialized oppression, and mass violence African Union [23]. The enduring psychosocial legacy of Apartheid continues to shape identity formation and relational dynamics among South Africa’s “born-free” generation, often manifesting as unresolved grief and intergroup mistrust Ratele [10]; Gobodo-Madikizela [24]. Similarly, the Rwandan Genocide has produced measurable trauma symptoms among post-genocide youth, demonstrating how collective trauma persists beyond direct exposure Richters [25]. These examples underscore that trauma in African contexts is not merely individual but deeply collective and historically situated. However, global trauma scholarship has been critiqued for universalizing Western frameworks that inadequately capture African sociocultural complexities Kirmayer [21]; Gone [26]. Studies on displaced and refugee populations in Southern Africa reveal “intergenerational trajectories of vulnerability” shaped by ongoing marginalization, gender-based violence, and precarious legal status Betancourt [27]. Such findings call for African-centred epistemologies that foreground collective memory, sociopolitical disruption, and culturally embedded coping systems, rather than relying solely on individualized diagnostic paradigms.

Psychological mechanisms and pathways of transmission

The transmission of trauma occurs through intersecting psychological and relational pathways, particularly within family systems Kellermann [1]; Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. Empirical studies in Rwanda demonstrate that parental post-traumatic stress influences offspring outcomes through mediators such as caregiving practices, emotional regulation, and communication styles Ng [28]. In South Africa, research on prenatal stress linked to historical trauma indicates increased susceptibility to later mental health challenges, pointing to a biopsychosocial interplay in trauma transmission Tomlinson [29]. These findings reinforce the importance of integrating developmental and ecological perspectives in understanding intergenerational trauma known as developmental psychology. Thus, beyond the family, broader socio-structural conditions such as forced migration and chronic instability intensify transmission processes Tomlinson [29]; Kirmayer [21]. Research among Eritrean asylum-seeking families highlights how complex trauma manifests within mother-child dyads under conditions of prolonged uncertainty Tomlinson [29]; Kirmayer [21]. Nevertheless, the prevailing literature remains disproportionately deficit-oriented, privileging pathology over resilience known as resilience theory. This imbalance obscures adaptive coping mechanisms and community-based resilience strategies that are central to many African contexts, thereby limiting a holistic understanding of trauma and recovery.

Intervention approaches and the role of psychology

Interventions addressing intergenerational trauma in Africa are gradually shifting from individualistic, clinic-based models toward community-oriented and culturally responsive approaches WHO [22]. In South Africa, integrative practices combining individual therapy, family systems work, and group interventions have shown promise, particularly when practitioners adopt reflexive and context-sensitive frameworks Gobodo-Madikizela [24]. However, many such interventions remain anchored in Western therapeutic paradigms, raising concerns about accessibility, cultural congruence, and sustainability in low-resource settings (Patel et al., 2023). Thus, emerging approaches emphasize the integration of indigenous knowledge systems and creative modalities Gone [26]. Arts-based and embodied interventions in rural communities, for instance, leverage collective participation and cultural expression to facilitate healing and meaning-making Chingota [30]. While these models challenge the dominance of Western individual therapy, their empirical evaluation remains limited, particularly regarding scalability and long-term outcomes (Patel et al., 2023). This reveals a critical gap between innovation and evidence, underscoring the need for rigorous, contextually grounded intervention research.

Toward an african-centred psychological framework

There is growing scholarly consensus on the need for Africancentred psychological frameworks that integrate indigenous epistemologies, spirituality, and communal values known as African psychology. Philosophical constructs such as Ubuntu emphasize interconnectedness, collective responsibility, and transgenerational continuity, offering a powerful lens for rethinking trauma and healing Mugumbate & Chereni [31]. Similarly, indigenous healing systems foreground relationality and community as both sites of harm and sources of resilience, aligning with global movements toward decolonizing psychology Gone [26]. However, the literature reveals persistent tensions between global psychological models and local knowledge systems Gone [26]; Osei-Tutu [32]. While hybrid approaches are increasingly emerging, there is limited theoretical integration and empirical validation of such models within African contexts Gone [26]; Osei-Tutu [32]. This gap constrains the development of a pluralistic psychology capable of addressing the complexity of intergenerational trauma, highlighting the need for frameworks that are both scientifically rigorous and culturally grounded.

Research gaps and future directions

Despite expanding scholarship, significant gaps remain. First, there is a paucity of longitudinal and multigenerational studies in African contexts, limiting insight into how trauma evolves and is transmitted over time Kirmayer [21]. Second, research is geographically concentrated in countries such as South Africa and Rwanda, leaving large regions underrepresented (Patel et al., 2023). Third, indigenous knowledge systems are insufficiently integrated into empirical research, resulting in interventions that may lack cultural resonance and community legitimacy Osei-Tutu [32]. Methodologically, the field is constrained by small sample sizes, cross-sectional designs, and an overreliance on deficit-based narratives. Accordingly, future research must prioritize resilience, post-traumatic growth, and community healing processes, while adopting interdisciplinary and participatory methodologies. Therefore, advancing the field will require a deliberate commitment to epistemic pluralism and the decolonization of psychological science in Africa.

Therapeutic Mediators in Traditional African Societies

Ancestors and cosmology

Across many African worldviews, ancestors function as active mediators between the material and spiritual realms, shaping moral order and psychosocial wellbeing Machinga & Banda [33]; Chingota [30]. Foundational work by John S. Mbiti conceptualizes ancestors as integral to a non-linear temporality in which past, present, and future coexist Mbiti [34,35]; Kanu [36]. This ontological framework enables trauma to be understood as embedded within lineage and collective memory, rather than confined to individual experience Nwoye [37]; Kamanzi [38]. Contemporary scholarship further suggests that ancestral cosmologies provide culturally resonant systems for meaningmaking, particularly in contexts marked by historical violence and displacement WHO [22]; Mhaka-Mutepfa [39]. However, integrating these cosmologies into formal psychological practice remains uneven. In pluralistic health systems such as those in Zimbabwe and South Africa, tensions persist between biomedical and spiritual paradigms Chingota [30]; African Union [23]. While neglecting ancestral frameworks risks epistemic marginalization, uncritical incorporation may obscure internal power dynamics, including gendered exclusions in ritual authority Kanyoro [40]; Ndlovu [41]. A nuanced approach is therefore required to position ancestors as therapeutic mediators without romanticizing tradition Ratele [10]; Mhaka-Mutepfa [39].

Communal healing practices

Healing in African contexts is fundamentally relational, emphasizing communal participation and collective restoration Nwoye [37]; Moyo & Sodi [42]. Rituals such as ukuthwasa and kurova guva function as culturally embedded mechanisms for restoring equilibrium across social and spiritual domains Chitando & Machinga [43]; Mapuranga & Mazambara [44]. These practices reframe distress as a disruption in relational networks rather than individual pathology, aligning with systemic approaches to mental health Moyo & Sodi [42]. Empirical evidence from postconflict settings, including Rwanda, indicates that communal rituals facilitate collective processing of trauma and foster social cohesion Richters [25]; United Nations [42]. Nonetheless, critical analysis reveals limitations as such practices may marginalize dissenting individual experiences and may be unequally accessible, particularly along gender and class lines Kamanzi [38]; Ndlovu [41]. Integrating communal healing into contemporary psychology therefore requires adaptive frameworks that retain relational strengths while addressing inclusivity and individual variability Moyo & Sodi [42]; Mhaka-Mutepfa [39].

Preservation of social harmony

Traditional African healing systems prioritize the restoration of social harmony as both process and outcome, with ancestors serving as moral arbiters Nwoye [37]; Chingota [30] This orientation resonates with restorative justice approaches, as exemplified in post-apartheid reconciliation processes in South Africa, particularly through the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Gobodo-Madikizela [24]. Healing is thus conceptualized not only as symptom reduction but as the reestablishment of moral and relational order. Yet, the emphasis on harmony can obscure structural determinants of trauma, including systemic inequality and political violence Ratele [10]. Critics argue that prioritizing cohesion may lead to premature reconciliation without adequate accountability Ratele [10]; Ndlovu [41]. This tension underscores the need to balance culturally grounded practices of reconciliation with justice-oriented frameworks that address root causes of intergenerational harm Gobodo-Madikizela [24]; UNDP [46].

Foundations of African Psychology

Holism and interconnectedness

African psychology is grounded in a holistic ontology that situates mental health within interconnected domains of body, mind, community, and spirituality Mkhize [15]; Ratele [10]; Osei- Tutu [32]. Scholars such as Nhlanhla Mkhize emphasize dynamic balance across these domains as central to wellbeing Mkhize [15]. This perspective aligns with global shifts toward ecological and trauma-informed frameworks that recognize the role of social determinants and historical context Gone [26]; WHO [22]. However, translating holistic principles into formal mental health systems remains challenging. Policy frameworks in countries such as Ghana and Kenya increasingly acknowledge cultural dimensions of care, yet implementation is hindered by resource constraints and epistemological hierarchies privileging Western models Mutiso [47]; Osei-Tutu [32]. This highlights a critical gap in operationalizing holism within scalable, evidence-based interventions, particularly in low-resource settings Patel [48]; WHO [22].

Ubuntu and transgenerational ethics

The philosophy of Ubuntu provides a relational ethical framework that extends moral responsibility across generations Ramose [49]; Mugumbate & Chereni [31]. Scholars such as Nyasha Mugumbate conceptualize Ubuntu as linking individual wellbeing to collective and ancestral continuity Mugumbate & Chereni [31]. Within trauma discourse, this reframes healing as a shared ethical obligation to repair relational ruptures across time, including intergenerational trauma shaped by colonialism and structural violence Kirmayer [21]; Gone [26]. Nonetheless, Ubuntu is not without critique. Some scholars caution against its essentialization and political co-option, noting contextual variability and potential limitations in addressing intra-community inequalities Matolino & Kwindingwi [50]. Future research must therefore engage Ubuntu critically, ensuring its application is context-sensitive and responsive to contemporary sociopolitical realities, particularly in rapidly urbanizing African societies Ratele [10]; Osei-Tutu [32].

Critique of western models

A central critique in African psychology concerns the inadequacy of Western diagnostic frameworks to capture culturally specific experiences of distress Summerfield [51]; Nwoye [37]; Ratele [10]. Phenomena such as spirit possession or ancestral calling are often pathologized within systems like the DSM, despite their cultural legitimacy Nwoye [37]; Kirmayer [21]. This critique aligns with broader decolonial calls for epistemic plurality and the recognition of indigenous knowledge systems Mbembe [52]; De Sousa Santos [53]. At the same time, rejecting Western models entirely risks overlooking their empirical contributions. Emerging integrative approaches, such as culturally adapted cognitivebehavioural therapies in Uganda and Nigeria, demonstrate the potential for hybrid models that combine scientific rigor with cultural relevance Murray [54]; Bolton [55]. The key research gap lies in developing and validating such integrative frameworks within African contexts while ensuring they remain accessible, scalable, and locally grounded Patel [48]; WHO [22].

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical foundations of inter- and transgenerational trauma

The theoretical grounding of inter- and transgenerational trauma is anchored in an integrative synthesis of psychodynamic, family systems, ecological, and biopsychosocial perspectives Danieli [56]; Kellermann [57]. Early psychoanalytic formulations emphasized unconscious transmission through identification and unresolved grief, while family systems theory expanded this lens to include relational dynamics, attachment disruptions, and patterns of silence or overexposure in trauma communication Bowen [58]; Felsen [59]. Contemporary ecological models, particularly those influenced by Bronfenbrenner’s framework, situate trauma within multilayered sociohistorical contexts, underscoring the interplay between individual, familial, and structural forces Bronfenbrenner [60]; Ungar [61]. Importantly, advances in epigenetics have introduced a biological dimension, suggesting that trauma may alter gene expression related to stress regulation, thereby contributing to intergenerational vulnerability Yehuda [4]; Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. However, these dominant frameworks remain largely rooted in Euro-American epistemologies, often privileging individual pathology and under-theorizing collective, spiritual, and historical dimensions of trauma, thereby limiting their explanatory power in African contexts Nwoye [18]; Ratele [10] (Figure 1).

This analysis does not claim that insecurity is the sole cause of Nigeria’s economic fragility. Such a claim would be too broad and empirically careless. Inflation, exchange rates, fuel prices, climate shocks, subsidy reform, weak productivity, infrastructure deficits, policy uncertainty, and global market pressures all remain important. The article’s narrower claim is that these pressures are intensified where public authority cannot secure the productive base. Macroeconomic reform may adjust incentives, prices, revenues, and capital signals, but reform becomes socially fragile where farms are unsafe, pipelines are vulnerable, roads are feared, enforcement is weak, and citizens distrust state protection. The wider implication for African political economy is that recovery in security-stressed states cannot be understood through macroeconomic reform alone. Many African states are not collapsed, but they are unevenly protective. They may maintain elections, ministries, budgets, courts, central banks, police forces, and reform programmes while struggling to secure rural production, critical infrastructure, market mobility, enforcement credibility, and public trust. In such contexts, recovery may appear in aggregate indicators while remaining weak in lived economic reality. Nigeria therefore illuminates a broader problem: economic reform depends on public authority over the productive base. Where the state cannot make economic life safely possible, recovery remains fragile. The question is not only whether a government can stabilise prices, exchange rates, revenues, and reserves. It is also whether citizens can farm, travel, trade, invest, and live under credible protection. That is the political economy of productive protection.

Conceptualizing trauma within african ontologies

Within African epistemological frameworks, trauma is not solely an intrapsychic disturbance but a disruption of relational, communal, and spiritual equilibrium Mkhize [15]; Nwoye [18]. African ontologies emphasize interconnectedness between individuals, communities, ancestors, and the spiritual realm, thus conceptualizing distress as embedded within a broader moral and cosmological order Mbiti [34]; Murove [62]. This perspective challenges reductionist biomedical models by foregrounding collective suffering, historical continuity, and the moral significance of social rupture Kirmayer [14]; Ratele [10]. Scholars argue that Western diagnostic categories such as PTSD may inadequately capture these dimensions, as they often exclude culturally salient expressions of distress and healing Summerfield [51]; Ratele [10]. Consequently, an African-centred conceptualization reframes intergenerational trauma as a communal and historically situated phenomenon, transmitted not only through family systems but also through collective memory, cultural narratives, and disrupted identities Nwoye [18]; Munyoro [63]. This shift is critical for developing culturally congruent theoretical models that resonate with lived realities across diverse African contexts Patel [48].

Pathways of trauma transmission: a multidimensional model

A robust conceptual framework for inter- and transgenerational trauma in Africa necessitates a multidimensional model integrating psychosocial, cultural, and biological pathways Kellermann [57]; Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. Psychosocial mechanisms include parenting practices, attachment patterns, and communication styles, through which trauma is internalized and reproduced across generations (Van IJzendoorn [64]; Danieli [56]. Cultural pathways involve the transmission of collective memory, often encoded in oral traditions, rituals, and social norms that preserve historical consciousness Hirsch [65]; Eyerman [66]. Biological embedding, particularly through epigenetic modifications, provides an additional layer, suggesting that trauma exposure may recalibrate stress-response systems across generations Yehuda [4]. However, the relative contribution and interaction of these pathways remain contested, with critics cautioning against biological determinism and emphasizing the primacy of sociocultural context Kirmayer [14]; Richardson [67]. In African settings, where ongoing structural inequalities and historical injustices persist, these pathways are not discrete but mutually reinforcing, necessitating a holistic and context-sensitive analytical approach Patel [48]; Munyoro [63].

Indigenous african healing paradigms as theoretical resources

Indigenous African healing systems offer critical theoretical resources for reimagining trauma recovery beyond Western clinical paradigms Mkhize [15]; Nwoye [18]. These systems are grounded in communal practices, spirituality, ritual, and embodied forms of knowledge, emphasizing restoration of harmony rather than symptom reduction Mbiti [34]; Murove [62]. Healing is often collective, involving family, community, and spiritual intermediaries, and is enacted through culturally embedded practices such as storytelling, music, dance, and rites of passage Wreford [68]; Chingandu & Chingandu [69]. Such approaches align with relational worldviews and provide mechanisms for meaning-making, social cohesion, and resilience Kirmayer [14]; Patel [48]. Despite their relevance, these paradigms remain marginal within mainstream psychological theory, often dismissed as non-scientific or relegated to the periphery of research Nwoye [18]; Ratele [10]. Thus, integrating these knowledge systems into contemporary frameworks requires epistemological openness and methodological innovation, challenging the dominance of positivist paradigms while maintaining rigorous standards of inquiry Munyoro [63].

Toward a decolonized psychological framework

A decolonized theoretical framework for addressing inter- and transgenerational trauma in Africa must move beyond additive models that merely incorporate cultural elements into existing Western paradigms Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]; Ratele [10]. Instead, it requires a fundamental reconfiguration of psychological theory to centre African epistemologies, values, and lived experiences Mkhize [15]; Nwoye [18]. This involves recognizing the historical entanglement of psychology with colonial knowledge production and actively dismantling epistemic hierarchies that marginalize non-Western perspectives Fanon [71]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]. A decolonized framework emphasizes relationality, collective healing, and sociopolitical accountability, positioning trauma not only as a psychological phenomenon but also as a consequence of structural violence and historical injustice Kirmayer [14]; Patel [48]. Such an approach aligns with emerging calls for epistemic justice and global mental health equity, yet remains underdeveloped in empirical and theoretical terms, particularly within African scholarship Munyoro [63].

Articulating the research gap

Despite increasing recognition of inter- and transgenerational trauma, significant theoretical and empirical gaps persist, particularly in African contexts Kirmayer [14]; Patel [48]. Existing frameworks are predominantly derived from Western populations, raising concerns about cultural validity and conceptual adequacy when applied to African settings Summerfield [51]; Ratele [10]. There is limited integration of indigenous knowledge systems into formal psychological theory, resulting in fragmented or superficial models that fail to capture the complexity of African experiences Munyoro [63]. Furthermore, the literature lacks longitudinal, multi-generational studies that examine the dynamic interplay of biological, psychosocial, and cultural factors over time Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. The dominance of deficit-oriented narratives also obscures resilience, adaptive coping, and community-based healing practices Ungar [61]; Chingandu & Chingandu [69]. Addressing these gaps requires a paradigmatic shift toward interdisciplinary, culturally grounded, and methodologically diverse research that foregrounds African voices and knowledge systems Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]; Patel [48]. This study responds to this need by proposing a theoretically integrated and contextually relevant framework for understanding and addressing inter- and transgenerational trauma in Africa.

Methodology

Research design

This study adopts a qualitative literature review design to critically interrogate the conceptual, theoretical, and empirical foundations of inter- and transgenerational trauma within African contexts Sotero [6]; Mohatt [7]; Makhubela [72]. Qualitative literature review is particularly suited to synthesizing dispersed interdisciplinary knowledge and generating nuanced, contextually grounded insights that extend beyond positivist generalizations Torraco [73]; Snyder [74]. In line with contemporary qualitative synthesis approaches, the design privileges interpretive depth over aggregation, enabling the study to interrogate how trauma is constructed, transmitted, and potentially healed across generations within sociohistorical and cultural contexts Levac [75]; Braun & Clarke [76]. This is essential given that intergenerational trauma is not merely an individual psychopathological phenomenon, but a relational and collective process embedded in historical violence, coloniality, and sociocultural disruption Gone [77]; Kirmayer [14]; Mignolo [78].

Data Sources and search strategy

A systematic and iterative search strategy was employed across major scholarly databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, to ensure comprehensive coverage of peerreviewed literature Page [79]. Keywords such as intergenerational trauma, transgenerational trauma, African psychology, indigenous healing, historical trauma, and decolonization were used in various Boolean combinations Denham [80]; Gone [81]. The search prioritised publications from 2015 to 2025 to capture recent developments while also incorporating seminal works where necessary for conceptual grounding Sotero [6]; Kirmayer [14]. This strategy reflects best practices in qualitative reviews, where breadth and theoretical saturation are prioritised over statistical representativeness Booth [82]; Snyder [74]. Importantly, the search process was reflexive and iterative, allowing emerging themes such as culturally embedded expressions of trauma and collective healing to refine subsequent searches, consistent with qualitative knowledge synthesis traditions Noblit & Hare [83]; Thomas & Harden [84].

Inclusion, exclusion, and selection criteria

Inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, and theoretically robust papers addressing intergenerational or historical trauma, particularly within African or comparable Indigenous and postcolonial contexts Munyoro [85]; Mohatt [7]; Gone [81]. Studies were included if they engaged with psychological, sociocultural, or interdisciplinary perspectives on trauma transmission and healing Kirmayer [14]; Munyoro [85]; Makhubela [72]. Exclusion criteria eliminated purely biomedical or neuro-reductionist studies that lacked sociocultural contextualisation, as well as non-scholarly sources Summerfield [51]; Gone [77]; Munyoro [85]. The selection process involved an initial screening of titles and abstracts, followed by full-text review to ensure conceptual relevance and analytical depth Munyoro [85]; Page [79]. This approach acknowledges critiques that dominant trauma research often marginalises non- Western epistemologies and therefore deliberately foregrounds literature that engages with cultural and structural dimensions of trauma Munyoro [85]; Mignolo [78]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70].

Analytical framework and synthesis

The study employed thematic synthesis informed by interpretive qualitative analysis to integrate findings across disciplines Munyoro [85]; Braun & Clarke [76]. This involved coding recurring concepts such as collective memory, cultural disruption, resilience practices, and indigenous epistemologies, as well as organising them into higher-order themes Thomas & Harden [84]; Braun & Clarke [76]. The analysis drew on interdisciplinary frameworks from trauma psychology, African philosophy, anthropology, and cultural psychiatry, recognising that intergenerational trauma operates across psychological, social, and symbolic domains Kirmayer [14]; Gone [81]. Importantly, the synthesis critically engages with dominant Western trauma paradigms, highlighting their limitations in capturing communal and relational understandings of distress prevalent in African contexts, where trauma is often experienced as a shared social condition rather than an individual pathology Makhubela [72]; Nwoye [18]. This interpretive layering enables the construction of a culturally grounded framework for healing that integrates both indigenous knowledge systems and contemporary psychological insights Nwoye [18]; Kirmayer [14].

Critical engagement and reflexivity

A reflexive stance was maintained throughout the review to interrogate epistemological biases within the literature, particularly the dominance of Eurocentric frameworks in trauma research Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]; Mignolo [78]. The analysis critically evaluates how knowledge production has historically excluded African perspectives, thereby reproducing epistemic injustice Fricker [86]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]. By juxtaposing global Indigenous scholarship with African-centred perspectives, the study challenges universalist assumptions and foregrounds culturally situated understandings of healing Kirmayer [14]; Gone [81]. This critical engagement is vital given evidence that integrating cultural and indigenous perspectives can transform trauma theory and practice yet remains underdeveloped in mainstream psychology Nwoye [18]; Makhubela [72]. Reflexivity also guided the interpretation of findings, ensuring that synthesis remained sensitive to context, power, and historical specificity Snyder [74]; Braun & Clarke [76].

Research gap and methodological justification

Despite a growing body of work on intergenerational trauma, significant gaps remain in the African context. Existing literature is heavily skewed toward Western and non-African Indigenous populations, with limited empirical and theoretical work grounded in African epistemologies and lived realities Ndlovu-Gatsheni [70]; Makhubela [72]. Moreover, much of the research conceptualises trauma through individualised clinical frameworks, neglecting collective, spiritual, and ecological dimensions central to African worldviews Kirmayer [14]; Nwoye [18]. Recent reviews highlight the need for more culturally diverse and multi-perspective research to fully understand trauma transmission and healing processes Gone [81]; Snyder [74]. This study addresses this gap by synthesising interdisciplinary and cross-cultural insights to articulate a distinctly African-informed psychological framework. Methodologically, the qualitative literature review is justified as it allows for critical integration and theoretical innovation in a field where empirical data remain fragmented and underdeveloped Torraco [73]; Snyder [74].

Data Analysis

Analytical approach and epistemological positioning

The data analysis was guided by an interpretive, constructivist epistemology, recognising that knowledge on inter- and transgenerational trauma is socially produced, historically situated, and culturally mediated Denzin & Lincoln [87]; Uwe Flick [88]. Rather than treating the literature as neutral data, the analysis critically interrogated how trauma is framed, whose voices are privileged, and which epistemologies are legitimised De Sousa Santos [53]; Smith [89]. This approach aligns with contemporary qualitative synthesis methodologies that emphasise meaning-making, reflexivity, and contextual sensitivity Thorne [90]; Sandelowski [91]. In the African context, such an orientation is particularly significant, as dominant trauma discourses often universalise Western psychiatric constructs, thereby obscuring collective, relational, and spiritual dimensions of distress and healing Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92]; Kirmayer [14].

Thematic coding and iterative analysis

The analytical process involved systematic thematic coding, beginning with open coding to identify recurrent concepts across the selected literature, followed by axial coding to establish relationships between themes Munyoro [85]; Strauss & Corbin [93]. Codes such as “collective memory,” “historical violence,” “cultural continuity,” “epistemic marginalisation,” and “indigenous healing practices” emerged inductively Munyoro [85]; Saldaña [94]. Through iterative comparison, these codes were refined into broader thematic categories that captured both the mechanisms of trauma transmission and pathways to healing Munyoro [85]; Miles [95]. This iterative process reflects best practices in qualitative synthesis, where themes are not pre-imposed but evolve through sustained engagement with the data, allowing for conceptual depth and theoretical sensitivity Munyoro [85]; Braun & Clarke [76].

Synthesis across interdisciplinary knowledge systems

A critical dimension of the analysis involved synthesising insights across diverse disciplines, including psychology, anthropology, African philosophy, and cultural psychiatry Kleinman [96]; Fassin [20]. This interdisciplinary integration enabled the study to move beyond reductionist interpretations of trauma as an individual pathology, instead conceptualising it as a multidimensional phenomenon embedded in sociopolitical histories and cultural systems Fanon [97]; Mbembe [98]. Importantly, the synthesis foregrounded tensions between Western clinical frameworks and African relational ontologies, demonstrating how dominant paradigms often fail to capture communal experiences of suffering and resilience Ndlovu- Gatsheni [92]; Summerfield [99]. By integrating indigenous knowledge systems with contemporary psychological theories, the analysis advances a more contextually grounded and epistemologically pluralistic understanding of trauma Ratele [10]; Gone [26]; Munyoro [63].

Critical discourse analysis of dominant paradigms

Beyond thematic aggregation, the analysis incorporated elements of critical discourse analysis to examine how language, power, and knowledge production shape the field of trauma studies Fairclough [100]; Van Dijk [101]. This involved interrogating the implicit assumptions embedded in widely cited frameworks, particularly the privileging of individualised, biomedical models, and assessing their applicability within African contexts Young [102]. The analysis reveals that such paradigms often depoliticise trauma by neglecting structural violence, colonial histories, and ongoing socio-economic inequalities Scheper-Hughes [103]; Farmer [104]. Consequently, the study argues for a paradigmatic shift toward decolonial and culturally responsive frameworks that recognise trauma as both a psychological and sociohistorical phenomenon Summerfield [99]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92].

Reflexive interpretation and contextual sensitivity

Reflexivity was integral to the analytical process, ensuring that interpretations remained critically aware of positionality, bias, and the limitations of the available literature Charmaz [105]; Hill Collins, 2022. Given the underrepresentation of African scholarship in global trauma discourse, the analysis deliberately amplified contextually relevant perspectives while critically engaging with external frameworks (Dineo Gqola, 2021). This reflexive stance also involved recognising the heterogeneity of African contexts and avoiding homogenising assumptions Appiah [106]. By maintaining sensitivity to cultural, historical, and political specificities, the analysis preserves the complexity of trauma experiences and resists reductive generalisations Kessi & Boonzaier [107].

Analytical limitations and knowledge gaps

While the qualitative synthesis enabled rich, contextual insights, the analysis is constrained by the uneven availability of African-centred empirical studies and the dominance of Global North scholarship Connell [108]. This imbalance necessitated careful interpretive negotiation to avoid reproducing epistemic hierarchies. Furthermore, the reliance on published literature may exclude valuable oral, community-based, and indigenous knowledge systems that are not formally documented Thiong’o [109]. These limitations underscore the need for future research that prioritises locally grounded methodologies and participatory approaches to knowledge production in African trauma studies Gone [26].

Findings

Reframing trauma beyond individual pathology

The findings indicate that inter- and transgenerational trauma in African contexts cannot be adequately understood through dominant individualistic and clinical paradigms African Union [23]; WHO [22]. Across the reviewed literature, trauma consistently emerges as a collective, historically embedded, and relational phenomenon shaped by colonial legacies, structural violence, and sociocultural disruption Fanon [71,97]; UNDP [46]. While Euro-American frameworks emphasize intrapsychic processes and diagnostic categories, African evidence highlights the centrality of communal identity, collective memory, and ongoing socio-economic inequalities in shaping trauma experiences Summerfield [110]; World Bank [111]. This suggests that prevailing models risk epistemic reductionism by isolating trauma from its sociopolitical and historical context Kirmayer, Gone, & Moses [14]. A critical synthesis therefore supports a paradigmatic shift toward ecological and historically grounded frameworks that situate trauma within broader systems of power, inequality, and cultural continuity Bronfenbrenner [60]; Herman, 2015).

Multidimensional pathways of trauma transmission

The analysis reveals that trauma transmission operates through an intricate interplay of psychosocial, cultural, and biological pathways Yehuda [4]. Psychosocial mechanisms, particularly disrupted attachment, parenting practices, and emotional communication, remain central, as evidenced in studies from Rwanda and South Africa Betancourt [27]. However, these processes are deeply embedded within cultural systems that transmit historical memory through narratives, rituals, and social norms UNESCO [112]. Biological research, particularly in epigenetics, provides emerging evidence for intergenerational stress regulation patterns, yet its explanatory power remains contested when divorced from sociocultural context Yehuda & Lehrner [5]. The findings underscore that in African settings, these pathways are mutually reinforcing rather than discrete, with structural inequalities and ongoing adversity intensifying transmission (UNICEF [113]. Consequently, any explanatory model that privileges a single pathway, particularly biological determinism, fails to capture the complexity of trauma inheritance in postcolonial contexts Kellermann [1].

Centrality of indigenous knowledge systems in healing

A key finding is the critical yet underutilized role of indigenous African knowledge systems in trauma healing WHO [114]. Practices grounded in spirituality, ritual, and communal participation provide culturally resonant mechanisms for meaning-making and psychosocial restoration WHO [114]; Munyoro [63]. Unlike Western therapeutic models that prioritize verbal articulation and individual insight, indigenous approaches emphasize embodied, relational, and symbolic processes of healing WHO [114]; Munyoro [63]. Evidence from communitybased interventions demonstrates that such practices foster social cohesion, identity reconstruction, and collective resilience MSF [115]. However, the marginalization of these systems within formal psychological discourse reflects enduring colonial hierarchies in knowledge production De Sousa Santos [116]. The synthesis highlights the need for epistemological inclusion that moves beyond tokenistic integration toward genuine theoretical and methodological incorporation of indigenous paradigms Chilisa [19].

Tensions between western and african psychological frameworks

The findings reveal persistent tensions between Western psychological models and African ontologies. While Western frameworks offer methodological rigor and evidence-based interventions, they often lack cultural congruence and accessibility in African contexts Patel [48]; American Psychological Association APA [117]. Conversely, African-centred approaches provide contextual relevance, but face challenges related to empirical validation and scalability Mkhize [15]; APA [118]. Hybrid models are emerging as a potential resolution, yet their development remains theoretically fragmented and empirically underdeveloped Kirmayer [21]. Critically, the analysis suggests that integration should not be additive by merely inserting cultural elements into Western frameworks but transformative, requiring a reconfiguration of foundational assumptions about mind, self, and healing Nwoye [18]. Without this shift, integration risks reproducing epistemic dominance rather than achieving genuine pluralism.

The role of community and relational ethics in recovery

Another significant finding is the central role of community and relational ethics in facilitating healing. Concepts such as collective responsibility, reconciliation, and social harmony are foundational to African approaches to wellbeing such as restorative justice and truth-telling processes Mbiti [34]; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa, 1998). Community based interventions, including group dialogues, rituals, and restorative practices, demonstrate effectiveness in addressing shared trauma and rebuilding social trust (Staub, 2020). However, the emphasis on harmony can also obscure power imbalances and structural injustices, potentially leading to premature reconciliation without accountability (Amnesty International, 2023). The findings therefore advocate for a balanced approach that integrates relational ethics with justice-oriented frameworks, ensuring that healing processes address both interpersonal and systemic dimensions of trauma (Bloomfield et al, 2003).

Evidence gaps and methodological constraints

The review identifies significant gaps in the empirical literature, particularly the scarcity of longitudinal and multigenerational studies within African contexts. Existing research is geographically concentrated and methodologically limited, often relying on cross-sectional designs and small samples (World Bank, 2023). Additionally, the dominance of deficitoriented narratives obscures resilience, adaptive coping, and post-traumatic growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Indigenous knowledge systems remain underrepresented in empirical research due to methodological biases that privilege written and quantitative data over oral and experiential knowledge UNESCO [112]. These constraints limit the development of comprehensive and contextually valid frameworks, highlighting the need for interdisciplinary, participatory, and culturally grounded research methodologies Chilisa [19]; Smith [89].

Toward a decolonized and contextually grounded psychology

The overarching finding is the urgent need for a decolonized psychological framework that centres African epistemologies and lived realities (Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, 1986/ [109]. Such a framework must move beyond the limitations of Western universalism to embrace epistemic plurality, integrating scientific rigor with cultural relevance (United Nations, 2023). This involves recognizing trauma as both a psychological and sociopolitical phenomenon, rooted in histories of colonialism, inequality, and collective disruption and that is Colonialism in Africa Fanon [71]; Herman, 1992; Mbembe, 2001; van der Kolk, 2014). A decolonized approach foregrounds relationality, spirituality, and community as central to healing, while also engaging critically with issues of power, justice, and structural transformation (Mbembe, 2001; van der Kolk, 2014). The synthesis suggests that the future of psychology in Africa lies not in adopting existing models but in cocreating new paradigms that are theoretically robust, culturally grounded, and socially transformative.

Discussion and Final Reflection

The synthesis of findings affirms that inter- and transgenerational trauma in African contexts demands a fundamental rethinking of trauma beyond individualized pathology toward a historically situated, collective, and relational paradigm Yehuda & Lehrner [5]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92]. The enduring psychological imprint of colonialism, apartheid, and genocidal violence, exemplified by the Rwandan Genocide and apartheid South Africa, illustrates how trauma is embedded within sociopolitical structures and reproduced across generations Staub [119]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018). While dominant Euro- American frameworks have contributed significantly to clinical understanding, their emphasis on intrapsychic processes risks obscuring the structural and historical determinants of distress Summerfield [51]; WHO [22]. African scholarship, including the work of Sabelo Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Kopano Ratele, foregrounds the concept of coloniality and the persistence of epistemic injustice, arguing that trauma cannot be disentangled from systems of power and inequality Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92]; Ratele, 2022). This critical perspective aligns with global Indigenous trauma research, yet it also highlights the need for contextually grounded frameworks that reflect Africa’s diverse cultural ontologies and lived realities Gone [120]; Duran & Duran [121].

Equally significant is the recognition that healing practices rooted in African indigenous knowledge systems offer not merely complementary but transformative possibilities for psychological intervention. Communal rituals, spiritual practices, and relational ethics and often encapsulated in philosophies such as Ubuntu, reframe healing as a collective process of restoring harmony, identity, and social cohesion Mbiti [34]; Metz [122]; Ratele, 2022). Empirical and practice-based evidence from post-conflict settings in Rwanda and South Africa demonstrates that community-based approaches, including truth-telling, reconciliation processes, and culturally embedded ceremonies, can facilitate meaning-making and resilience in ways that conventional psychotherapy alone may not achieve Clark [123]; Hayner [124]. However, the analysis also cautions against romanticizing indigenous systems, as issues of power, exclusion, and gender inequality may be obscured within narratives of communal harmony Summerfield [51]; Ratele, 2022). Thus, the future of psychology in Africa lies not in a simplistic integration of Western and indigenous models, but in a critical, decolonial synthesis that reconfigures foundational assumptions about the self, suffering, and healing Mbembe [98]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92].

In final reflection, the role of psychology in Africa’s future is both urgent and transformative. Addressing inter- and transgenerational trauma requires a paradigm that is epistemically plural, historically conscious, and socially responsive WHO [22]; Patel [125]. This entails moving beyond disciplinary silos toward interdisciplinary collaboration, investing in longitudinal and community-based research, and legitimizing diverse forms of knowledge production, including oral traditions and lived experience Israel [126]; Gone [120]. Importantly, a decolonized psychology must engage not only with healing but also with justice, addressing the structural conditions that perpetuate trauma Fanon [127]; WHO [22]. As Africa continues to navigate the legacies of its past while shaping its future, psychology has a critical role to play in fostering collective resilience, restoring dignity, and contributing to broader projects of social transformation Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92]; Ratele, 2022).

Policy Implications and Practice

The findings underscore that policy responses to interand transgenerational trauma in African contexts must move beyond narrow, clinic-based mental health frameworks toward multisectoral, historically informed, and community-embedded strategies WHO [22]; Africa CDC [128]. At a policy level, this necessitates the integration of mental health into broader development agendas, including education, public health, social protection, and transitional justice systems African Union [129]; WHO [22]. Governments and regional bodies such as the African Union should prioritize trauma-informed policies that recognize the enduring psychological impacts of colonialism, conflict, and structural inequality (African Union [129]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92].

For example, post-genocide Rwanda’s incorporation of community-based healing mechanisms, such as gacaca-inspired dialogue processes, illustrates how justice and psychosocial recovery can be co-constructed within culturally resonant frameworks Clark [123]; Staub [119]. Similarly, South Africa’s post-apartheid reconciliation efforts reveal both the potential and limitations of national healing initiatives that do not sufficiently address structural inequities (TRC of South Africa, 1998; Gobodo- Madikizela [130]. From a practice perspective, there is a need to institutionalize culturally grounded and community-based interventions such as group dialogue, storytelling, ritual practices, and peer-led support networks within formal health systems Metz [122]; Gone [120]. This requires investment in training mental health practitioners in culturally competent and decolonial approaches, as well as the inclusion of traditional healers and community leaders as legitimate stakeholders in care delivery Patel [125]; WHO [22]. Without such systemic shifts, policy risks reproducing the epistemic dominance and limited accessibility of Western-centric psychological models Summerfield [51].

At the same time, the translation of these insights into practice demands critical engagement with issues of power, accountability, and evidence generation Israel [126]. While integrating indigenous knowledge systems into policy frameworks is essential, this process must avoid both tokenism and uncritical romanticization (Ratele, 2022). Thus, effective policy should support rigorous, contextually sensitive and participatory research methodologies that capture the complexity of trauma transmission and healing across generations Israel [126]; WHO [22]. Regional collaboration through institutions such as Africa CDC and academic networks can strengthen the evidence base and facilitate knowledge exchange across diverse contexts Africa CDC [128]. Internationally, partnerships with global mental health initiatives must be reconfigured to ensure equitable knowledge production and avoid extractive research practices Patel [125]. Importantly, trauma-informed policy must also address structural drivers of distress, including poverty, gender inequality, and political violence, aligning psychological interventions with broader social justice goals WHO [22]. Ultimately, the role of psychology in Africa’s future lies in shaping policies and practices that are not only therapeutically effective but also socially responsive, culturally grounded, and oriented toward long-term resilience and equity Ndlovu-Gatsheni [92]; Ratele, 2022).

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that inter- and transgenerational trauma in African contexts is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon that cannot be adequately addressed through dominant individualistic and Eurocentric psychological frameworks. Trauma in Africa is deeply embedded within historical, sociopolitical, and cultural realities, shaped by enduring legacies of colonialism, conflict, and structural inequality. The findings underscore that trauma transmission operates through interconnected psychosocial, cultural, and biological pathways, while also being sustained through collective memory and ongoing lived experience. Crucially, the marginalization of African epistemologies within mainstream psychology has limited both theoretical understanding and the development of contextually relevant interventions. Addressing these gaps requires a paradigmatic shift toward a decolonized and ecologically grounded psychology that recognizes trauma as a collective and historically situated condition rather than merely an individual pathology.

Equally important is the recognition that sustainable healing in African contexts must draw on the strengths of indigenous knowledge systems, communal practices, and relational worldviews. Approaches rooted in spirituality, ritual, and collective responsibility offer culturally resonant pathways for restoring social harmony, identity, and resilience across generations. However, the integration of these systems into contemporary psychology must be undertaken critically, ensuring both cultural validity and empirical rigour while addressing internal inequalities and broader structural injustices. Ultimately, the future of psychology in Africa lies in the development of pluralistic, contextually grounded frameworks that bridge indigenous and global knowledge systems, foster interdisciplinary collaboration, and align healing with social transformation. Such an approach not only enhances the relevance and effectiveness of psychological practice but also contributes to long-term resilience, justice, and collective wellbeing across generations.

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