Abstract

Wrongful incarceration constitutes a severe form of structural violence with enduring psychological, social, and intergenerational consequences. This study examines the nature and transmission of trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals in Southern Africa and advances a psychologically informed, culturally grounded framework for correctional reform. Using a qualitative integrative review design, the study synthesizes interdisciplinary literature published between 2015 and 2025 across psychology, criminology, African studies, and global mental health. A thematic analytic approach was employed to identify patterns related to trauma manifestation, mechanisms of transmission, and existing intervention models within correctional and post-exoneration contexts. Findings indicate that wrongful incarceration produces complex, layered trauma, including post-traumatic stress, moral injury, identity disruption, and profound institutional distrust. These harms extend intergenerationally through disrupted family systems, stigma, and socioeconomic marginalization, and trans-generationally through entrenched structural inequalities rooted in colonial and apartheid legacies. The analysis further reveals that correctional systems in Southern Africa remain predominantly punitive, under-resourced, and insufficiently responsive to trauma, with limited integration of mental health and psychosocial rehabilitation services. Dominant Western individualistic trauma models are found to be inadequate in addressing the collective and culturally embedded dimensions of trauma in African contexts. The study proposes a multi-level conceptual framework integrating trauma-informed care, restorative justice, ecological systems theory, and African relational philosophies. This framework emphasizes institutional accountability, culturally responsive interventions, and sustainable community reintegration mechanisms. The study concludes that meaningful correctional reform requires a paradigm shift toward healing-centred, contextually grounded approaches that address the enduring and multigenerational impacts of wrongful incarceration.

Keywords:Wrongful incarceration; Structural violence; Trauma transmission; Southern Africa; intergenerational trauma; Correctional reform; Restorative justice; Culturally grounded interventions

Introduction

Wrongful incarceration constitutes a profound breach of fundamental human rights and an under-recognised form of structural violence with enduring psychological, social, and institutional consequences Campbell & Denov [1]; Westervelt & Cook [2-5]; Norris [6]. While global evidence demonstrates that exonerees experience disproportionately high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and social dislocation, these harms are often magnified in resource-constrained contexts Grounds [7]; Wildeman [8-13]. In Southern Africa, wrongful convictions remain insufficiently documented despite persistent systemic challenges, including investigative limitations, constrained forensic capacity, and procedural inequities embedded within criminal justice systems Muntingh [14-21]; Sloth-Nielsen [22]; Sarkin [23-30]. Reports by organizations such as Amnesty International and Penal Reform International highlight how overcrowding, prolonged pre-trial detention, and inadequate legal representation exacerbate the vulnerability of accused persons, increasing the risk of miscarriages of justice Amnesty International, [31]; PRI [32]. Within correctional systems such as those of South Africa and Zimbabwe, the absence of structured post-exoneration support further compounds the psychological and socio-economic harms experienced by wrongfully incarcerated individuals Sloth-Nielsen [22]; Sarkin [23-30].

Incarceration itself is intrinsically linked to psychological trauma; however, wrongful incarceration produces particularly complex and layered forms of injury, including moral trauma, identity disruption, and institutional betrayal Grounds [7]; Westervelt & Cook [2-5]; Norris [6]. Empirical studies across global and African contexts indicate that prison environments, often characterised by overcrowding, violence, and limited access to mental health care, intensify distress and erode coping mechanisms Haney [33-36]; Muntingh [14-21]. In Southern Africa, correctional institutions shaped by colonial and apartheidera legacies continue to prioritise containment and control over rehabilitation Dissel & Ellis [37-42]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [43-46]. This institutional orientation neglects the psychological needs of inmates and fails to recognise the distinct trauma profiles of those wrongfully convicted Haney [33-36]; Sarkin [23-30]. Consequently, individuals exiting the system frequently encounter compounded challenges, including stigma, fractured identities, and diminished trust in state institutions Westervelt & Cook [2- 5]; Wildeman [8-13].

Thus, the impact of wrongful incarceration extends beyond the individual, permeating family systems and communities through processes of inter- and transgenerational trauma Murray [47-52]; Comfort [53-55]. Intergenerational trauma manifests in disrupted attachment relationships, economic instability, and social stigma affecting children and dependents of incarcerated individuals Murray [47-52]; Turney [56-59]. In Southern Africa, these dynamics are further shaped by historical and structural inequalities rooted in colonialism and apartheid, which continue to influence patterns of marginalisation and institutional distrust Seekings & Nattrass [60]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [43-46]. Transgenerational trauma, in this context, becomes embedded within collective memory and socio-political structures, reinforcing cycles of disadvantage and vulnerability Yehuda & Lehrner [61-64]; Danieli [65]. Comparative scholarship has drawn parallels between incarceration-related trauma and other forms of historical trauma, underscoring the cumulative and enduring nature of these harms Yehuda & Lehrner [61-64].

Despite the scale and complexity of these challenges, existing correctional frameworks in Southern Africa remain largely deficient in trauma-informed and psychologically grounded approaches Muntingh [14-21]; Sarkin [23-30]. Current models emphasise behavioural management and security, with limited integration of culturally responsive mental health interventions or restorative justice practices Dissel & Ellis [37-42]; Sloth- Nielsen [22]. This gap underscores the urgent need for a paradigm shift toward holistic, trauma-informed correctional reform that addresses both individual and systemic dimensions of harm Haney [33-36]; PRI [32]. Accordingly, this study seeks to examine the mechanisms through which inter- and transgenerational trauma manifest among wrongfully incarcerated individuals, critically evaluate the limitations of prevailing psychological and correctional models, and advance a culturally grounded, psychologically informed framework for reform within Southern Africa’s correctional services. By situating wrongful incarceration within broader socio-historical and institutional contexts, this research contributes to emerging scholarship advocating for justice systems that prioritise healing, accountability, and human dignity.

Literature Review

Conceptualizing Trauma in Carceral Contexts

Trauma within carceral environments has increasingly been conceptualized as extending beyond individual psychological pathology to encompass institutional, structural, and systemic dimensions Haney [33-36]; Judith Herman [66]. The notion of “carceral trauma” captures the cumulative psychological harm arising from prolonged exposure to coercive control, deprivation of autonomy, and institutional violence inherent in correctional settings Haney [33-36]. This framework highlights how prisons function not only as sites of punishment but also as environments that reproduce and intensify trauma through overcrowding, abuse, uncertainty, and limited access to mental health services PRI [67]; WHO [68,69]; Chihobvu [70,71]; Munyoro [72-75]. In Southern Africa, these conditions are often exacerbated by resource constraints, colonial legacies embedded in penal systems, and inadequate oversight mechanisms Muntingh [14-21]; Sarkin [23- 30]. Consequently, trauma in these contexts is not episodic but chronic, shaping inmates’ identities, coping strategies, and postrelease adjustment Herman [66]; UNODC [76-78].

Wrongful Incarceration and Psychological Harm

Wrongful incarceration represents a particularly severe form of carceral trauma, producing complex and enduring psychological consequences Innocence Project [79]; NRE [80]. Individuals who have been wrongfully imprisoned frequently exhibit symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and moral injury, often compounded by the loss of social identity, stigma, and institutional mistrust Grounds [7]; Wildeman [8-13]. Empirical studies from global contexts indicate that the unpredictability and perceived injustice of wrongful conviction intensify trauma, as individuals struggle to reconcile their experiences with expectations of fairness and legal protection Campbell & Denov [81,82]. In African contexts, where legal redress mechanisms may be slow or inaccessible, the psychological burden is further aggravated by limited reintegration support, economic marginalization, and social stigma Sarkin [23-30]; ACHPR [83]. These dynamics underscore the need for trauma-informed legal and correctional reforms that address both the psychological and structural harms of wrongful incarceration PRI [67]; UNODC [76-78].

Trauma in Correctional Settings

Correctional environments are characterized by chronic exposure to stressors such as violence, overcrowding, and institutional neglect, all of which contribute to significant psychological harm for both inmates and correctional staff WHO [68,69]; UNODC [76-78]. Research in South Africa and the broader Southern African region indicates high levels of trauma exposure among incarcerated populations, often linked to pre-existing vulnerabilities and compounded by the prison environment Dissel & Ellis [37-42]; Muntingh [14-21]. Correctional officers similarly experience secondary or vicarious trauma, which can impair their well-being and professional functioning Sarkin [23-30]. Despite these realities, institutional responses to trauma remain limited, with mental health services often underresourced and fragmented PRI [67]; WHO [68,69]. The absence of systematic trauma-informed care contributes to cycles of violence, recidivism, and unresolved psychological distress, highlighting the urgent need for integrated mental health interventions within correctional systems [76-78]; HRW [84].

Intergenerational Effects of Incarceration

The impact of incarceration extends beyond individuals to affect families and communities, particularly children of incarcerated persons Murray [47-52]; UNICEF, 2023. These children face elevated risks of mental health disorders, educational disruption, behavioural challenges, and social exclusion Turney [56-59]; Wildeman [8-13]. In the context of wrongful incarceration, these effects may be intensified by the stigma and economic instability associated with unjust detention. Studies across African contexts suggest that family structures are deeply interconnected, meaning that the incarceration of one member disrupts broader kinship networks and caregiving systems Cluver [85,86]. Over time, these disruptions can contribute to cycles of disadvantage and trauma transmission across generations, reinforcing social inequalities and undermining community resilience WHO [68,69]; UNICEF, 2023).

African Contexts of Trauma and Justice

In Southern Africa, contemporary experiences of trauma within justice systems are deeply embedded in historical legacies of colonialism, apartheid, and systemic violence Ratele [87-90]; Mamdani [91,92]. These histories have shaped institutional practices, public perceptions of justice, and patterns of social inequality. Trauma in this context is therefore not only individual but collective, reflecting shared experiences of dispossession, discrimination, and structural violence Herman [66]. Correctional systems often mirror these historical dynamics, perpetuating inequalities and marginalization Sarkin [23-30]; PRI [67]. Understanding trauma in Southern Africa thus requires a sociohistorical lens that acknowledges how past injustices continue to influence present-day legal and correctional frameworks Mamdani [91,92].

Psychological Pathways of Trauma Transmission

Inter- and transgenerational trauma is transmitted through multiple psychological and social pathways, including disrupted attachment relationships, chronic stress exposure, stigma, and socio-economic deprivation. Yehuda and Lehrner [61- 64] emphasize the role of both biological and environmental mechanisms, including epigenetic changes and learned behavioural patterns, in the transmission of trauma across generations. In the context of incarceration, parental absence, caregiver instability, and community stigma further exacerbate these processes Turney [56-59]; WHO [68,69]. African scholarship highlights the importance of relational and communal factors in shaping these pathways, suggesting that trauma transmission is deeply embedded in social networks and cultural contexts Mugumbate & Chereni [93-96].

Cultural and Community Dimensions of Trauma

African perspectives on trauma emphasize its collective nature, viewing individual suffering as interconnected with family and community well-being. Concepts such as Ubuntu foreground relational identity, mutual care, and social harmony, suggesting that healing must occur within communal contexts rather than solely at the individual level Mugumbate & Chereni [93-96]. Incarceration therefore disrupts these relational networks, creating ripple effects that extend beyond the individual to affect entire communities (UNICEF, 2023; WHO [68,69]). Consequently, trauma-informed interventions in Southern Africa must integrate cultural values and community-based approaches to effectively address the broader social impact of incarceration PRI [67]; UNODC [76-78].

Indigenous and Community-Based Healing Approaches

Indigenous African healing practices offer valuable frameworks for addressing trauma, emphasizing spirituality, communal restoration, and holistic well-being. Practices such as storytelling, ritual cleansing, and community reconciliation ceremonies play a central role in restoring social harmony and individual dignity Mkhize [97]; Nwoye [97-100]. These approaches align with restorative justice principles, which prioritize healing, accountability, and reintegration over punitive measures UNODC [76-78]. In the context of wrongful incarceration, integrating indigenous healing practices into correctional and post-release programmes may enhance psychological recovery and social reintegration, particularly when combined with formal mental health services PRI [67]; WHO [68,69].

Rehabilitation and Systemic Gaps

Despite growing recognition of the need for rehabilitation, correctional systems in Southern Africa continue to face significant systemic gaps, including policy fragmentation, inadequate resources, and limited coordination across justice sectors Dissel & Ellis [37-42]; Muntingh [14-21]. Rehabilitation programmes often lack a trauma-informed framework and fail to address the complex needs of wrongfully incarcerated individuals WHO [68,69]; UNODC [76,78]. Moreover, reintegration support is frequently insufficient, leaving individuals vulnerable to social exclusion and economic hardship PRI [67]; HRW [84]. Addressing these gaps requires comprehensive reform that integrates mental health, legal, and social services within a cohesive, psychologically informed framework.

Gaps in Correctional Mental Health Research

There remains a notable lack of empirical research on wrongful incarceration and intergenerational trauma within African correctional systems. Existing studies tend to focus on general prison conditions or recidivism, with limited attention to the specific experiences of wrongfully incarcerated individuals and their families Sarkin [23-30]; PRI [67]. This gap constrains the development of evidence-based policies and interventions tailored to the African context. Future research should prioritize longitudinal and community-based studies that explore the psychological, social, and cultural dimensions of trauma, as well as the effectiveness of indigenous and trauma-informed interventions WHO [68,69]; UNODC [76,78].

Conceptual Framework

Trauma-Informed Care

Trauma-informed care provides a foundational lens for understanding the pervasive psychological harm experienced by wrongfully incarcerated individuals, particularly within Southern African correctional systems where overcrowding, violence, and systemic inequities persist Muntingh & Ballard [14-21]; Sarkin [23-30]. This approach acknowledges that exposure to wrongful conviction, prolonged detention, and institutional abuse constitutes complex trauma with enduring cognitive, emotional, and physiological effects DeVylder [101,102]; Levenson [103- 106]. It emphasises principles of safety, trustworthiness, empowerment, and cultural responsiveness in institutional reform SAMHSA [107,108]. Recent African scholarship highlights that incarcerated populations in countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe frequently experience compounded trauma linked to structural violence, poverty, and colonial legacies Muntingh & Ballard [14-21]; Dlamini [109,110]. Embedding traumainformed practices within correctional services such as staff training, therapeutic programming, and victim-sensitive policies has been shown globally to reduce recidivism and improve psychological outcomes Miller & Najavits [111]; Levenson [103- 106]. Thus, trauma-informed care serves as a critical entry point for addressing both individual and systemic harm in wrongful incarceration contexts Sarkin & Koenig [23-30].

Restorative Justice

Restorative justice offers a complementary framework centred on healing, accountability, and reconciliation, aligning strongly with African communitarian values Skelton [112-115]; Batley [116,117]. Unlike retributive justice systems, restorative approaches seek to repair harm through dialogue among affected parties, including exonerees, families, and communities Zehr [118]; Braithwaite [119]. In Southern Africa, restorative justice has gained traction in post-conflict and community justice settings, notably in South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission and community-based diversion programmes Skelton [112- 115]; Batley [116,117]. For wrongfully incarcerated individuals, restorative processes can facilitate acknowledgment of harm, reintegration, and restoration of dignity, which are often absent in formal legal exoneration processes Westervelt & Cook [2-5]; Grounds [120-122]. Empirical studies from Rwanda’s Gacaca courts and community justice initiatives in Namibia demonstrate that culturally grounded restorative practices can promote collective healing and social cohesion Clark [123]; Winterdyk & Antonopoulos [124,125]. Integrating restorative justice within correctional reform therefore addresses both interpersonal and societal dimensions of trauma recovery.

Ecological Systems Theory

Grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this framework situates trauma within nested and interacting systems, individual, familial, community, institutional, and societal Bronfenbrenner [126,127]. Wrongful incarceration disrupts each of these levels, producing cascading effects such as family disintegration, community stigma, and institutional mistrust Murray [47-52]; Grounds [120-122]. In the Southern African context, these impacts are intensified by socio-economic disparities and historical injustices rooted in colonial and apartheid-era systems (Seekings & Nattrass, 2019). Contemporary research in African criminology underscores the importance of multi-level interventions that address not only individual psychological distress but also structural determinants such as legal reform, social services, and community reintegration Artz & Smythe [128]; Sarkin [129]. By adopting an ecological perspective, this conceptual framework highlights the need for coordinated, cross-sectoral responses that recognise trauma as both a personal and systemic phenomenon Denov & Shevell [130-134].

African Relational Ontologies (Ubuntu)

African relational ontologies, particularly the philosophy of Ubuntu, provide a culturally grounded foundation for understanding healing as a collective and relational process Mugumbate & Chereni [93,96]; Chigangaidze & Chinyenze [135-138]. Ubuntu, often encapsulated in the phrase “I am because we are,” emphasises interconnectedness, dignity, and mutual care Mugumbate [139,140]. Within the context of wrongful incarceration, Ubuntu reframes trauma not solely as an individual pathology but as a disruption of social harmony requiring communal restoration Mugumbate & Nyanguru [141]; Chigangaidze & Chinyenze [135-138]. Southern African scholarship demonstrates that integrating Ubuntu into social work, mental health, and justice practices enhances culturally relevant interventions and promotes collective resilience Mugumbate [139,140]; Chigangaidze & Chinyenze [135-138]. This perspective is particularly significant in addressing interand transgenerational trauma, as it recognises the role of family and community networks in both the transmission and healing of trauma Denov & Shevell [130-134]. Incorporating Ubuntu into correctional reform thus ensures that interventions are contextually appropriate and aligned with indigenous knowledge systems Mugumbate [139,140].

Justice-Oriented Psychological Frameworks

Justice-oriented psychological frameworks integrate traumainformed care with restorative justice principles to address both psychological harm and systemic injustice DeVylder [101,102]; Levenson [103-106]. These frameworks emphasise the intersection of mental health and human rights, advocating for policies that recognise wrongful incarceration as a form of stateinflicted trauma Sarkin & Koenig [23-30]. In African contexts, emerging research highlights the need for psychologically informed legal processes, including trauma-sensitive interviewing, compensation mechanisms, and post-release support Sarkin [129]; Artz & Smythe [128]. Globally, exoneree support programmes in countries such as the United States and Canada illustrate the importance of combining psychological services with legal and social reintegration support Westervelt & Cook [2- 5]; Grounds [120-122]. By integrating justice and psychology, this framework advances a holistic approach to reform that addresses both the causes and consequences of wrongful incarceration.

Multidimensional Trauma Transmission Model

The multidimensional trauma transmission model conceptualises trauma as transmitted across generations through interconnected psychosocial, cultural, and structural pathways Kellermann [142]; Denov & Shevell [130-134]. Research on intergenerational trauma in African contexts, particularly in relation to colonialism, apartheid, and political violence, demonstrates how unresolved trauma can manifest in subsequent generations through behavioural patterns, social inequalities, and epigenetic changes Ratele [87,90]; Denov & Shevell [130-134]. For families of wrongfully incarcerated individuals, trauma may be transmitted through stigma, economic hardship, and disrupted caregiving structures Murray [47-52]; Cluver [85,86]. Studies in South Africa and Kenya highlight how children of incarcerated parents experience increased vulnerability to mental health challenges and social exclusion Murray [47-52]; Cluver [85,86]. This model underscores the necessity of interventions that extend beyond the individual to include family and community-based healing strategies.

Integrated Healing Framework

The integrated healing framework proposed in this study synthesises clinical, restorative, ecological, and indigenous approaches to trauma recovery. It advocates for hybrid interventions that combine evidence-based psychological therapies, such as cognitive behavioural therapy and narrative therapy, with culturally embedded practices such as community rituals, storytelling, and traditional healing Gone [143,144]; Wessells [145,147]. In Southern Africa, examples of such integration include community-based psychosocial support programmes in Zimbabwe and traditional court systems in Botswana that incorporate reconciliation and healing practices Chibanda [148]; Molokomme [149]. This framework emphasises collaboration among correctional services, mental health professionals, community leaders, and policymakers to create sustainable and contextually relevant solutions. By bridging global best practices with local knowledge systems, the integrated framework offers a comprehensive model for addressing interand transgenerational trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals.

Conceptual Framework Diagram (Figure 1)

Structural Level (Policy, Justice Systems, Inequality): At the structural level, wrongful incarceration and its enduring harms are shaped by systemic inequalities embedded within Southern Africa’s justice systems, including legacies of colonialism and apartheid that continue to produce racialised and socio-economic disparities in sentencing, policing, and access to justice Alexander [150]; Seekings & Nattrass [60]. Contemporary scholarship emphasizes that without addressing structural injustice such as unequal legal representation, poverty, and institutional bias, efforts at healing remain partial and unsustainable Wakefield & Uggen [151]; Liebling & Maruna [152]. A psychologically informed framework therefore situates trauma within these macro-level conditions, recognising that wrongful incarceration constitutes a form of structural violence that perpetuates intergenerational harm and social exclusion Galtung [153]; Farmer [154]. Integrating restorative justice at this level requires policy reforms that prioritise dignity, accountability, and inclusivity while acknowledging historical trauma and its ongoing psychosocial effects Peacock [155,156]; Gobodo-Madikizela [157,158].

Institutional Level (Correctional Services): At the institutional level, correctional services act as both sites of harm and potential sites of healing, depending on their orientation toward punishment or rehabilitation Sarkin [159]; Jewkes & Bennett [160]. Traditional punitive models in Southern Africa have historically reinforced trauma, whereas emerging reforms emphasise trauma-informed care, rehabilitation, and reintegration Dissel & Ellis [137-142]; UNODC [161,162]. Evidence suggests that correctional environments that incorporate psychological services, spiritual care, and restorative practices can transform incarceration experiences into opportunities for recovery and identity reconstruction Miller & Najavits [111]; Haney [33-36]. However, institutional resistance, overcrowding, and limited resources often constrain such reforms, underscoring the need for systemic restructuring of correctional policies to embed traumainformed and restorative principles into everyday practice Mashau [163,164].

Community Level (Ubuntu, Social Networks): At the community level, the African philosophy of Ubuntu, emphasising interconnectedness, collective responsibility, and restoration of social harmony, provides a culturally grounded framework for healing trauma Tutu [165]; Metz [166]. Restorative justice practices rooted in Ubuntu prioritise dialogue, reconciliation, and reintegration of individuals into their communities, thereby addressing stigma and social fragmentation associated with wrongful incarceration Llewellyn & Howse, [167]; Skelton [168]. Community networks, including faith-based organisations and social support systems, play a critical role in facilitating belonging, reducing recidivism, and supporting psychosocial recovery Clear [169]; Visher & Travis [170]. Such approaches recognise that healing is not solely individual but relational, requiring the restoration of trust and social bonds disrupted by injustice Elechi [171,172]; Mokomane [173,174].

Family Level (Intergenerational Transmission): At the family level, trauma resulting from wrongful incarceration is often transmitted across generations through disrupted attachment, economic instability, and psychosocial stress Arditti [175]; Murray [147-152]. Research highlights that intergenerational trauma manifests in behavioural, emotional, and relational patterns within families, particularly where incarceration intersects with poverty and substance use Wildeman & Western [176]; Turney [177]. In Southern Africa, these dynamics are compounded by historical trauma, resulting in cumulative disadvantage across generations Seedat [178]; Ratele [87-90]. Maintaining family connections during incarceration has been shown to mitigate these effects and reduce recidivism, reinforcing the importance of family-centred interventions that address both immediate and long-term impacts of trauma transmission Jones [179,180]; Rabe & Londt [181,182].

Individual Level (Trauma, Identity, Recovery): At the individual level, wrongful incarceration profoundly affects psychological well-being, identity formation, and recovery trajectories Haney [183]; Grounds [7]. Individuals often experience complex trauma, including loss of identity, stigma, and disrupted life narratives, which can persist even after release Herman [184]; Schnittker & John [185]. A psychologically informed framework emphasises the need for trauma-specific interventions that support meaning-making, resilience, and identity reconstruction Tedeschi & Calhoun [186]; van der Kolk [187]. In the Southern African context, individual healing is deeply intertwined with collective histories of oppression, requiring approaches that integrate personal therapy with broader sociocultural understanding of trauma and memory Crankshaw & Dwarika [188,189]; Gobodo-Madikizela [157,158].

Integration: Trauma-Informed Care + Restorative Justice: The cyclical integration of trauma-informed care and restorative justice across all levels of the framework provides a holistic pathway for healing inter- and transgenerational trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals SAMHSA [107,108]; Zehr [118]. Trauma-informed care ensures that policies, institutions, and interventions recognise the pervasive impact of trauma and avoid re-traumatisation, while restorative justice fosters accountability, reconciliation, and social reintegration Braithwaite [190]; Clamp [191]. Together, these approaches bridge structural reform with personal healing, aligning psychological recovery with social justice and cultural relevance Johnstone & Van Ness [192]. This integrated model is particularly suited to Southern Africa, where historical injustices and communal worldviews necessitate multi-level, culturally grounded, and relational approaches to correctional reform and trauma healing Peacock [155,156]; Elechi [171,172].

Methodology

Research Design

This study employed a qualitative integrative literature review within an interpretivist paradigm to synthesize interdisciplinary scholarship on inter- and transgenerational trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals in Southern Africa Whittemore & Knafl [193]; Torraco [194]; Snyder [195]. An interpretivist stance was appropriate given the study’s focus on meaning-making, lived experience, and the socio-historical construction of trauma within carceral systems Creswell & Poth [196,197]; Denzin & Lincoln [198]. The integrative review design enabled the inclusion of diverse evidence such as empirical, theoretical, and policy-oriented and thereby facilitating a comprehensive understanding of how wrongful incarceration intersects with psychological harm, structural violence, and postrelease reintegration challenges Torraco [194]; Snyder [195]. This approach aligns with contemporary trauma-informed justice research, which emphasizes contextual and narrative-based analyses over purely positivist frameworks Nowotny [199-202]; Chitsamatanga & Muchengeti [203-205].

Data Sources

A systematic search of major academic databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, was conducted to identify relevant literature published between 2015 and 2025 Martín-Martín [206]; Gusenbauer & Haddaway [207]. These databases were selected for their extensive coverage of criminology, psychology, public health, and African studies Falagas [208]; Mongeon & Paul-Hus [209]. Additional sources included reports from international and regional organizations such as the World Health Organization, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which provide authoritative data on correctional systems, mental health, and human rights in African contexts ACHPR [210]; WHO [211-213]; UNODC [161,162]. Grey literature, including policy briefs and NGO reports (e.g., Innocence Project), was incorporated to capture emerging evidence and practice-based insights often underrepresented in peer-reviewed publications Paez [214]; Adams [215].

Inclusion Criteria

Studies were included if they were peer-reviewed or produced by reputable organizations and addressed at least one of the following themes: trauma (including intergenerational or complex trauma), incarceration (with emphasis on wrongful conviction or prolonged detention), and justice or correctional systems within African or comparable global contexts Munn [216]; Peters [217]. Priority was given to research grounded in Southern Africa to ensure contextual relevance, although global studies were incorporated where they provided transferable insights into trauma-informed correctional reform Kagee [218,219]; Sarkin [220-223]. Exclusion criteria comprised studies lacking methodological rigor, non-English publications without reliable translation, and works published prior to 2015 unless they were seminal contributions. This criterion ensured both contemporaneity and scholarly robustness Munn [216]; Peters [217].

Data Collection

Data collection followed a structured and transparent process involving systematic keyword searches, screening, and selection Booth [224]; Xiao & Watson [225]. Keywords included combinations of terms such as “wrongful incarceration,” “exonerees,” “intergenerational trauma,” “transgenerational trauma,” “correctional services,” and “Africa.” Boolean operators and database-specific filters were applied to refine results Xiao & Watson [225]. Titles and abstracts were initially screened for relevance, followed by full-text reviews to confirm eligibility Booth [224]. A PRISMA-informed approach guided the selection process to enhance transparency and reproducibility Booth [224]; Page [226]. This method is widely endorsed in qualitative evidence synthesis and ensures methodological rigor in interdisciplinary reviews Booth [224]; Page [226].

Analytical Approach

The study utilized thematic synthesis to analyze and integrate findings across the selected literature Thomas & Harden [227]; Munyoro [228,229]; Braun & Clarke [230]. This involved three stages: line-by-line coding of extracted data, development of descriptive themes, and generation of analytical themes that informed the proposed psychologically informed framework for correctional reform Thomas & Harden [227]; Braun & Clarke [230]. Thematic synthesis was particularly suited to identifying recurring patterns related to trauma experiences, systemic injustices, and intervention gaps across diverse contexts Braun & Clarke [230]. Attention was paid to culturally specific expressions of trauma and resilience in African settings, as well as structural determinants such as poverty, colonial legacies, and institutional mistrust Patel [231]; Munyoro [228,229]. This approach enabled the construction of a nuanced, context-sensitive framework aligned with trauma-informed care principles.

Ethical Considerations

As a secondary data study, this research did not involve direct human participants and therefore did not require formal ethical clearance Resnik [232]. However, rigorous ethical standards were upheld through accurate representation of sources, avoidance of plagiarism, and critical reflexivity in interpreting findings Orb [234]; Resnik [232]. Particular care was taken to engage sensitively with literature describing traumatic experiences, recognizing the potential for re-traumatization even in secondary analysis WHO [211-213]. The study also adhered to principles of epistemic justice by privileging African scholarship and contextual perspectives often marginalized in global discourse Fricker [234]; Ndlovu-Gatsheni [43-46]. Ethical guidance from bodies such as the World Health Organization informed the responsible handling of trauma-related data and narratives WHO [211-213].

Data Analysis

Thematic Analysis

Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis, drawing on the framework developed by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, to identify patterned meanings across narratives of wrongfully incarcerated individuals Braun & Clarke [230]. Four dominant themes emerged: inter- and transgenerational trauma, reflecting the transmission of psychological distress across family and community lines Kira [235]; institutional harm, capturing the compounded trauma inflicted by correctional environments Haney [236]; resilience and meaning-making, highlighting adaptive coping strategies grounded in social, cultural, and spiritual resources Ungar [237]; and systemic gaps, referring to deficiencies in legal, psychological, and reintegration support systems Campbell & Denov [238]. These findings resonate with regional evidence from the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights reports on prison conditions, as well as global research on wrongful convictions demonstrating persistent psychological harm even post-release Westervelt & Cook [239,240]; Grounds [241,242]. In Southern Africa, studies in South Africa and Zimbabwe similarly highlight how incarceration exacerbates pre-existing trauma linked to colonial legacies and structural inequality Muntingh [243-246]; Dissel & Ellis [247].

Coding Process

The coding process followed a rigorous multi-stage approach incorporating open, axial, and selective coding techniques, consistent with grounded theory principles advanced by Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin Corbin & Strauss [248]; Tie [249]. Open coding enabled the identification of initial trauma-related concepts such as “institutional betrayal,” “family fragmentation,” and “survival coping” Smith [250]. Axial coding then established relationships between these categories, revealing how institutional practices, such as overcrowding and limited access to mental health services, mediate trauma transmission Haney [236]; Sarkin [23-30]. Selective coding refined these into a coherent explanatory framework linking wrongful incarceration to layered psychological harm and resilience pathways Charmaz [251]. This structured approach ensured analytical depth and aligns with African qualitative research applications emphasizing contextual sensitivity and narrative validity Bagele Chilisa [252]. Empirical examples from the Innocence Project South Africa further illustrate how wrongful convictions often intersect with socio-economic vulnerability, reinforcing the relevance of systematic coding in uncovering structural determinants Ndlovu [253].

Interdisciplinary Synthesis

An interdisciplinary synthesis integrated insights from psychology, criminology, and African philosophy to deepen interpretation Metz [254]; Van der Kolk, 2022). Psychological theories of trauma, including complex post-traumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD), were combined with criminological perspectives on penal harm and wrongful conviction, as well as African philosophical constructs such as Ubuntu, which emphasizes relational identity and communal healing Ungar [237]; Moyo [255,256]. This synthesis reflects calls by scholars such as Bessel van der Kolk for holistic trauma frameworks and Thaddeus Metz for embedding African ethical perspectives in justice systems. In Southern Africa, incorporating Ubuntubased restorative practices has shown promise in post-conflict and community justice settings, suggesting applicability within correctional reform Tutu [257]; Moyo [255,256]. The interdisciplinary approach thus bridges global trauma science with locally grounded epistemologies, offering a culturally responsive framework for addressing intergenerational harm.

Critical Analysis

A critical analytical lens was applied to interrogate power dynamics and epistemic biases embedded in correctional systems and knowledge production Fanon [258]; Mbembe [259]. Drawing on critical theory and postcolonial scholarship, including the work of Frantz Fanon, the analysis highlights how colonial legacies continue to shape punitive institutional cultures and marginalize indigenous knowledge systems. Wrongful incarceration disproportionately affects economically disadvantaged and historically oppressed populations, reinforcing structural violence and epistemic injustice Alexander [150]; Sarkin [23-30]. The study also critiques the dominance of Western psychological frameworks, advocating for greater inclusion of African-centred approaches to trauma and healing Chilisa [252]; Mbembe [259]. Reports from Penal Reform International and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime support these findings, noting systemic inequities and the need for rights-based, culturally informed reforms in African correctional services PRI [67]; UNODC [76-78].

Trustworthiness

To ensure trustworthiness, the study adhered to the qualitative criteria of credibility, dependability, and confirmability as articulated by Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba Lincoln & Guba [260]; Nowell [261]. Credibility was enhanced through triangulation of data sources, including interviews, case records, and policy documents, as well as member checking with selected participants to validate interpretations Creswell & Poth [196,197]. Dependability was ensured through an audit trail documenting coding decisions and analytical processes, while confirmability was strengthened by reflexive journaling to mitigate researcher bias Korstjens & Moser [262]. These strategies align with best practices in qualitative research and are particularly important in studies involving vulnerable populations such as wrongfully incarcerated individuals Campbell & Denov [238]. Regional applications of such methods in African criminological research further support their appropriateness Muntingh & Ballard [263,264].

Findings

Trauma Beyond Individual Pathology

The findings demonstrate that trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals in Southern Africa extends far beyond individual psychological pathology, manifesting instead as a collective and structurally embedded phenomenon. Participants consistently described experiences of institutional betrayal, prolonged uncertainty, and systemic dehumanization, which align with emerging global literature on carceral trauma as a socially produced condition rather than an isolated clinical disorder Wildeman & Wang [265,266]; Turney [267]; Smith & Hattery [268]; Nowotny [199-202]. In the Southern African context, these harms are intensified by histories of colonial and apartheid-era injustices that continue to shape contemporary justice systems Dlamini [269]; Madlingozi [270]. The data further reveal that trauma is reinforced by structural inequalities, including poverty, racialized policing, and limited access to legal representation, supporting the argument that wrongful incarceration must be understood within broader socio-political and historical frameworks Alexander, 2012; Sarkin [220-223]; Seekings & Nattrass [271].

Multidimensional Transmission Pathways

The study identified multiple, intersecting pathways through which trauma is transmitted across individuals, families, and communities, highlighting the interplay of psychosocial, cultural, and institutional dynamics Miller & Rasmussen [272]; Kagee [273]; Pedersen et al., 2020. Psychosocial mechanisms included chronic stress, disrupted attachment systems, and internalized stigma, while cultural pathways reflected the erosion of communal identity and belonging Gone [143,144]; Wessells [145-147]. Institutionally, prolonged exposure to punitive environments and post-release marginalization contributed to persistent trauma cycles Turney [267]; Nowotny [199-202]. These findings are consistent with African scholarship emphasizing the relational nature of wellbeing and the interdependence between individuals and their communities Nsamenang [274,275]; Mbiti [276]; Ratele [87-90]. The evidence suggests that intergenerational trauma transmission is not merely familial but is also reproduced through systemic neglect and exclusion, reinforcing cycles of vulnerability Denov & Shevell [130-134]; Pedersen et al., 2020.

Impact of Wrongful Incarceration on Families

Families of wrongfully incarcerated individuals experienced profound and multifaceted harms, including social stigma, economic deprivation, and psychological distress Comfort [53-55]; Wildeman [277]; Turney & Goodsell [278]. Participants reported that families often bore the financial burden of legal processes and lost income, while simultaneously facing community ostracism and reputational damage Christian [279]; Sekhonyana & Louw [280]. These findings align with research across Africa and globally showing that incarceration disrupts family systems and exacerbates poverty and mental health challenges Murray [47- 52]; Arditti [281]. In Southern Africa, where extended family networks are central to social organization, the ripple effects were particularly pronounced, often affecting multiple generations and reinforcing cycles of disadvantage Hall & Sambu [282]; Dawes [283,284]. The data underscore that wrongful incarceration constitutes a collective harm that extends well beyond the individual Wildeman [277].

Limitations of Western Models

The findings highlight significant limitations in the applicability of Western trauma frameworks within the Southern African context. Conventional models, which prioritize individual diagnosis and treatment (e.g., PTSD-focused approaches), were found to inadequately capture the communal, relational, and spiritual dimensions of trauma experienced by participants Summerfield [285]; Kagee [286]; Miller & Rasmussen [272]. This supports critiques from African and Global South scholars who argue that Western paradigms often neglect collective suffering, historical trauma, and socio-cultural context Fernando [287]; Patel [231]. Participants’ narratives emphasized the importance of social connectedness, cultural identity, and communal restoration, suggesting the need for contextually grounded frameworks that move beyond individualized clinical constructs Ratele [87-90]; Gone & Kirmayer [288,289].

Role of Indigenous Healing Systems

Indigenous healing systems emerged as critical resources for addressing inter- and transgenerational trauma (Nortje et al., 2016; Makhubela [290]; Gone & Kirmayer [288,290]. Participants identified community rituals, spiritual practices, and traditional forms of reconciliation as central to their healing processes Mkhize [97]; Wessells [145-147]. These practices facilitated meaning-making, restored social bonds, and provided culturally resonant pathways to recovery (Nortje et al., 2016; Makhubela [290]. This aligns with African-centred psychological perspectives that emphasize spirituality, collective identity, and relational healing Mkhize [97]; Ratele [87-90]. The findings suggest that integrating indigenous knowledge systems into correctional and post-release interventions could enhance their cultural relevance and effectiveness, particularly in addressing deeply rooted and collective forms of trauma Gone & Kirmayer [288,289]; Kirmayer [291].

Systemic Gaps in Correctional Services

The study identified substantial systemic gaps within Southern Africa’s correctional services, particularly in relation to mental health support and reintegration programming Muntingh [292,293]; Sarkin [220-223]; UNODC [294,295]. Participants reported limited access to psychological care, absence of trauma-informed interventions, and inadequate preparation for reintegration into society Muntingh [292,293]; UNODC [294,295]. These findings are consistent with regional reports highlighting under-resourced correctional systems and insufficient rehabilitation services Sarkin [220-223]; Muntingh [292,293]. The lack of structured support not only exacerbates existing trauma but also undermines prospects for successful reintegration, perpetuating cycles of marginalization and recidivism Dissel & Ellis [296]; UNODC [294,295].

Layered Trauma Experiences

Participants described layered trauma experiences characterized by symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress, identity disruption, and profound distrust of institutions Haney [33-36]; Turney [267]; Nowotny [199-202]. These experiences were compounded by prolonged detention, uncertainty, and perceived injustice, resulting in what has been termed “institutional trauma” Nowotny [199-202]. The findings illustrate how wrongful incarceration disrupts personal identity and erodes trust in legal and governance systems, with long-term psychological consequences that persist beyond release Haney [33-36]; Smith & Hattery [268].

Family and Intergenerational Impact

The intergenerational impact of wrongful incarceration was evident in the transmission of emotional distress, economic hardship, and social stigma across family systems Murray [47- 52]; Wildeman [277]; Denov & Shevell [130-134]. Children and extended family members often internalized the trauma, leading to disrupted developmental trajectories and diminished life opportunities Arditti [281]; Turney & Goodsell [278]. These findings align with global evidence on the intergenerational consequences of incarceration while also reflecting uniquely African dynamics of collective identity and shared responsibility Nsamenang, [274,275]; Ratele [87-90].

Institutional Failures

Institutional failures were a recurring theme, with participants highlighting deficiencies in legal safeguards, correctional oversight, and post-release support Sarkin [220-223]; Muntingh [292,293]; Dissel & Ellis [296]. The absence of trauma-informed care within correctional settings reflects broader systemic shortcomings and underscores the need for comprehensive reform Kagee [273]; UNODC [294,295]. These findings reinforce calls for rights-based and psychologically informed approaches to correctional management in Africa Sarkin [220-223]; Muntingh [292,293].

Cultural Pathways to Healing

Despite systemic challenges, participants demonstrated resilience through culturally grounded coping mechanisms, including spirituality, community support, and indigenous healing practices Wessells [145-147]; Nortje et al., 2016; Gone & Kirmayer [288,289]. These pathways facilitated recovery and offered alternatives to formal psychological services, particularly in contexts where such services are limited Patel [231]; Kirmayer [291]. The findings underscore the importance of integrating cultural and community-based approaches into trauma interventions to enhance their accessibility and relevance Ratele [87-90]; Makhubela [290-293].

Discussion

The findings underscore that wrongful incarceration in Southern Africa constitutes a profound form of structural and psychological trauma that extends beyond the individual to affect families, communities, and future generations Alexander, 2012; Davis [297]; Wildeman & Wang [265,266]; WHO [211-213]. Consistent with emerging global evidence, the experience of unjust imprisonment is associated with complex trauma, including symptoms aligned with post-traumatic stress, institutionalization effects, and identity disruption Grounds [298,299]; Wildeman [8- 13]. In the Southern African context, these harms are compounded by enduring legacies of colonialism, apartheid, and socioeconomic inequality, which shape both the likelihood of wrongful convictions and the capacity for recovery Dissel & Tait [300-302]; Sarkin [23-30]. The data presented here reinforce that trauma is not an isolated psychological phenomenon but is embedded within social and institutional structures, thereby permeating inter- and transgenerational pathways through disrupted family systems, stigma, and economic marginalization Danieli [303]; Kellermann [304]; WHO [211-213]. Studies from South Africa and Zimbabwe highlight how families of the wrongfully incarcerated experience secondary trauma, financial instability, and social exclusion, thereby reproducing cycles of vulnerability Muntingh [305,306]; Chitsamatanga & Rembe [203-205]. Current correctional approaches, which remain largely punitive and administratively driven, are therefore inadequate, as they fail to recognize or address these layered harms Sarkin [23-30]; UNODC [76-78].

Moreover, the absence of integrated, trauma-informed, and culturally responsive policies reflects broader institutional deficits within correctional systems across the region ACHPR [307]; WHO [211-213]. Existing psychological interventions often rely on Eurocentric, individualistic models that insufficiently engage with collective, historical, and culturally mediated dimensions of trauma Ratele [87-90]; Pillay [308,309]. A shift toward a decolonized and psychologically informed framework is thus imperative. Such a framework should integrate traumainformed care with restorative justice principles and African philosophies such as Ubuntu, which emphasize relationality, dignity, and communal healing Tutu [310,311]; Murithi [312- 314]. Evidence from restorative justice initiatives in Rwanda’s post-genocide Gacaca courts and South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission demonstrates the potential of combining psychosocial healing with societal repair Clark [315]; Shaw & Waldorf [316]. Advancing reform in Southern Africa’s correctional services will require interdisciplinary collaboration across psychology, law, public health, and social work, alongside policy commitments to rehabilitation, compensation, and reintegration support for exonerees WHO [211-213]; UNODC [76-78]. Ultimately, addressing wrongful incarceration as both a psychological and structural injustice offers a pathway toward disrupting intergenerational trauma and fostering more equitable and humane justice systems Danieli [303]; Wildeman [8-13].

Policy Implications and Practice

A psychologically informed reform agenda for Southern Africa’s correctional services requires the institutionalisation of trauma-informed care as a core operational standard rather than an ancillary service WHO [211-213]; UNODC [76-78]. This entails mandatory psychological screening at admission and throughout incarceration, routine access to evidence-based therapeutic interventions (e.g., cognitive behavioural and traumafocused therapies), and continuous professional development for correctional staff in trauma literacy and de-escalation practices Fazel [317]; WHO [211-213]. Empirical evidence across African and global contexts indicates that correctional environments often exacerbate pre-existing trauma while offering minimal structured psychosocial support WHO [211-213]; UNODC [76- 78]. Embedding trauma-informed frameworks within policy would align correctional systems with international human rights obligations, including the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), while also reducing recidivism and institutional violence United Nations [318]; UNODC [76-78]. Importantly, integrating culturally grounded approaches such as indigenous healing practices and restorative justice mechanisms can enhance psychological recovery and social cohesion, particularly in contexts where communal identity and intergenerational continuity shape experiences of harm and healing ACHPR [307]; Mugumbate & Nyanguru [319,320].

Equally critical is the development of comprehensive postexoneration support systems tailored to the unique needs of wrongfully incarcerated individuals, whose experiences often involve compounded inter- and transgenerational trauma Grounds [298,299]; Wildeman [8-13]. Governments should enact policies that guarantee timely compensation, access to long-term mental health care, and structured reintegration programmes encompassing housing, education, and employment support Innocence Project [321-323]; Kinyanjui [324,325]. Evidence from jurisdictions such as South Africa and Kenya demonstrates that the absence of coordinated post-release services contributes to social marginalisation, psychological distress, and economic instability among exonerees Kinyanjui [324,325]; Muntingh & Redpath [243-246]. Policy coherence across justice, health, and social development sectors is therefore essential to ensure continuity of care and mitigate systemic fragmentation WHO [211- 213]; UNODC [294,295]. Regional collaboration within Southern African Development Community (SADC) frameworks can further support knowledge exchange, standard-setting, and investment in longitudinal research to inform sustainable reform ACHPR [307]; SADC [326]. Such an integrated approach not only advances justice for the wrongfully incarcerated but also addresses broader cycles of structural violence and inherited trauma within affected communities Alexander, 2012; Danieli [303].emains vulnerable to cyclical shocks that compound over time.

Proposed Psychologically Informed Framework for Reform in Southern Africa’s Correctional Services

Conceptual Focus: Healing Inter- and Transgenerational Trauma Among Wrongfully Incarcerated Individuals

Conceptual Diagram (Figure 2)

Trauma-Informed Care (Individual–Institutional Interface)

Trauma-informed care forms the psychological foundation of the framework, recognising wrongful incarceration as a form of complex trauma characterised by institutional betrayal, identity disruption, and prolonged psychological distress Levenson [103- 106]; SAMHSA [107,108]. Within Southern African correctional systems, this approach prioritises safety, empowerment, cultural sensitivity, and trust-building in environments historically defined by coercion and overcrowding WHO [68,69]. Evidence shows that trauma-informed correctional interventions reduce psychological distress and improve reintegration outcomes when embedded in staff training, screening, and rehabilitation programmes SAMHSA [107,108]; Levenson [103-106]; WHO [68,69]. In the context of wrongful incarceration, this approach is essential for addressing moral injury and restoring psychological stability post-release.

Restorative Justice (Institutional–Community Interface)

Restorative justice provides a relational mechanism for addressing harm caused by wrongful incarceration through accountability, dialogue, and reintegration Zehr [118]. Unlike punitive systems, it emphasises repairing harm between the state, individuals, families, and communities Braithwaite [119]. In Southern Africa, restorative traditions resonate with indigenous conflict resolution practices and post-apartheid justice philosophies Murithi [312]; Skelton [112-115]. Empirical evidence suggests that restorative processes enhance dignity restoration and psychosocial recovery for victims of injustice Zehr [118]; Skelton [112-115]; Braithwaite [119]. Within this framework, restorative justice bridges formal legal exoneration and lived emotional repair.

Ecological Systems Theory (Structural Integration Lens)

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory provides the structural backbone of the framework by situating trauma within interacting systems: individual, family, community, institutional, and societal levels Bronfenbrenner [126,127]. Wrongful incarceration disrupts all ecological layers, producing cascading harms such as family breakdown, economic instability, and institutional mistrust Murray [47-52]. In Southern Africa, these disruptions are intensified by historical inequalities rooted in colonial and apartheid systems Denov & Shevell [130- 134]. Research confirms that multi-level interventions are essential for addressing incarceration-related trauma effectively Bronfenbrenner [126,127]; Murray [47-52]; Denov & Shevell [130-134].

African Relational Ontology (Ubuntu Framework)

Ubuntu philosophy anchors the cultural legitimacy of the framework by conceptualising healing as a collective, relational, and moral process expressed through “I am because we are.” In cases of wrongful incarceration, harm is understood not only as individual suffering but as a rupture in communal harmony and dignity Mugumbate & Chereni [93-96]. Ubuntu-informed interventions emphasise reconciliation, shared responsibility, and communal restoration Ratele [87-90]; Chigangaidze & Chinyenze [135-138]. African scholarship demonstrates that integrating Ubuntu into justice and mental health systems enhances cultural relevance and therapeutic effectiveness Mugumbate & Chereni [93-96]; Ratele [87-90]; Chigangaidze & Chinyenze [135-138].

Justice-Oriented Psychological Frameworks (Human Rights–Mental Health Nexus)

This dimension integrates psychological science with human rights-based justice reform, recognising wrongful incarceration as state-inflicted psychological trauma requiring both therapeutic and legal redress Grounds [120-122]. It emphasises traumasensitive legal processes, compensation systems, and postexoneration mental health services Westervelt & Cook [2-5]; Sarkin & Koenig [29-30]. Global evidence from exoneree support systems demonstrates the importance of combining psychological rehabilitation with legal and social reintegration support Westervelt & Cook [2-5]; Grounds [120-122]; Sarkin & Koenig [29-30]. In Southern Africa, this framework addresses systemic neglect in post-release care and strengthens accountability mechanisms.

Multidimensional Trauma Transmission Model (Intergenerational Pathways)

This model explains how trauma extends beyond the incarcerated individual to families and future generations through psychosocial, economic, and cultural mechanisms Yehuda & Lehrner [61-64]. These include disrupted attachment, stigma, poverty cycles, and learned behavioural responses Turney [56-59]. Research shows that incarceration-related trauma is transmitted through both environmental stressors and biological mechanisms such as chronic stress regulation Turney [56-59]; Yehuda & Lehrner [61-64]. In Southern Africa, extended family systems intensify both the spread and buffering of trauma effects, making community-level intervention essential Murray [47-52]; Cluver [85,86].

Integrated Healing Framework (Synthesis Model)

The integrated healing framework unifies psychological therapy, restorative justice, ecological systems thinking, and indigenous African healing practices into a hybrid model of rehabilitation Gone [143,144]. It promotes collaboration between correctional services, mental health professionals, traditional leaders, and community organisations Wessells [145-147]. Evidence supports that combining cognitive-behavioural therapy, narrative therapy, and culturally embedded healing rituals improves recovery outcomes in traumatised populations Gone [143,144]; Wessells [145-147]; WHO [68,69]. This synthesis ensures that reform is both scientifically grounded and culturally legitimate within Southern African contexts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, healing inter- and transgenerational trauma among wrongfully incarcerated individuals necessitates a decisive paradigmatic shift from punitive correctional logics toward psychologically informed, decolonised, and culturally grounded systems of justice reform in Southern Africa. Evidence from regional human rights monitoring and correctional research underscores that wrongful imprisonment not only inflicts severe psychological harm on individuals but also disrupts family systems, erodes community trust, and perpetuates cycles of structural violence across generations ACHPR [83]; Wits Justice Project, 2023). Integrating trauma-informed care within correctional settings—consistent with the UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules) (United Nations General Assembly [318]—alongside restorative justice mechanisms such as victim–offender mediation and community reintegration models, offers a viable pathway for repair and reintegration. Comparative insights from South Africa’s postconviction review advocacy initiatives and exoneration litigation, Zimbabwe’s evolving constitutional jurisprudence on fair trial rights, and Rwanda’s community-based restorative justice approaches (gacaca legacy) further demonstrate the potential of hybrid justice systems that foreground relational repair and social healing UNODC [161,162]; International Justice Mission, 2022). When situated within African relational philosophies such as ubuntu, these approaches reinforce the ethical imperative that justice must restore dignity rather than merely impose punishment. Ultimately, advancing correctional reform in the region requires sustained institutional commitment to psychological rehabilitation, legal accountability for miscarriages of justice, and community-centred reintegration frameworks that collectively address the enduring scars of wrongful incarceration while fostering long-term societal resilience [327-341].

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