Ximena Celia Mendez Cubillos

doi:10.19080/RAEJ.2025.06.555691

Robotic Infrastructure for Space-Based Solar Power: A Review of Challenges and Emerging Solutions

Ximena Celia Mendez Cubillos*

Department of Application Engineering, Open CADD Advanced Technology, Av Brig Faria Lima Jardins, São Paulo, Brazil

Submission:May 13, 2025;Published:May 22, 2025

*Corresponding author:Ximena Celia Mendez Cubillos, Department of Application Engineering, Open CADD Advanced Technology, Av Brig Faria Lima Jardins, São Paulo, Brazil

How to cite this article: Ximena Celia Mendez C. Robotic Infrastructure for Space-Based Solar Power: A Review of Challenges and Emerging Solutions. Robot Autom Eng J. 2025; 6(4): 555691.DOI: 10.19080/RAEJ.2025.06.555691

Abstract

As the demand for sustainable energy alternatives intensifies, Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) has emerged as a compelling solution, leveraging uninterrupted access to solar radiation in orbit. Among the enabling technologies, solar sails stand out not only for propulsion but also as potential platforms for energy harvesting and autonomous orbital positioning. This paper explores the integration of solar sails within SBSP architectures, emphasizing the role of autonomous control systems and robotic deployment in maintaining optimal orientation and functionality. Through comparative analysis with terrestrial solar arrays under varying atmospheric conditions, our findings reinforce the resilience of SBSP systems. Furthermore, advancements such as the Advanced Composite Solar Sail System illustrate how automation and robotics are transforming solar sails into viable components of a scalable, autonomous orbital energy infrastructure.

Keywords: Space-based solar power; Solar sail; Autonomous control; Robotic deployment; Sustainable energy systems

Introduction

The world is currently grappling with a dual energy crisis. On one hand, numerous countries still lack reliable access to electricity, while on the other, high-GDP nations heavily rely on fossil fuels, driving up CO₂ emissions and accelerating global warming. This pressing situation underscores the urgent need to shift towards clean, renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear power [1]. Since the dawn of civilization, humanity has largely depended on energy derived from hydrocarbons-resources that took millions of years to form through natural processes. However, we are depleting these finite resources at rates millions of times faster than they can be replaced. As more countries move toward advanced, energy-intensive economies, the demand for energy is bound to increase, and it is evident that these resources will eventually be exhausted. Furthermore, energy generation from hydrocarbons, primarily through combustion, releases substantial amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere, with consequences that remain only partially understood. This contributes to global warming, potentially resulting in catastrophic environmental impacts [2].

Terrestrial solar energy has grown significantly as a clean energy source, yet it faces considerable limitations due to technological, geographic, and socio-economic factors. This has prompted increasing interest in Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)- a solution that capitalizes on the uninterrupted, high-intensity solar radiation found in Earth’s orbit. The Sun, functioning as a massive fusion reactor, emits energy continuously, with a lifespan of billions of years. If fusion were to stop today, its residual energy would still allow it to shine for at least another twenty million years [3].

SBSP offers access to solar flux unimpeded by atmospheric interference, cloud cover, or diurnal cycles, making it billions of times more abundant than what is accessible on Earth’s surface. Only a minuscule fraction-approximately one part in 2.3 billion-of the Sun’s total output reaches our planet. With the development of wireless power transmission, autonomous control, and robotic assembly in orbit, SBSP has the potential to meet a significant portion of Earth’s energy demands while reducing environmental impact [4].

Historical Background and Conceptual Development

The concept of solar sailing, while often associated with spacecraft propulsion, also offers opportunities for orbital control, alignment, and energy redirection, essential for autonomous SBSP architectures. Its origins trace back to the 17th century, when Kepler observed that a comet’s tail always pointed away from the Sun and theorized that sunlight exerted pressure-an idea later proposed for space travel using reflective sails [5].

Throughout the 20th century, foundational thinkers like Tsiolkovsky and Tsander envisioned using photon pressure for propulsion. The concept gained renewed attention with advances in aerospace engineering. For example, in 1973, NASA engineers effectively used solar radiation pressure for attitude control of the Mariner-10 spacecraft-an early demonstration of low-energy autonomous control using solar sails [6]. The idea of using orbital structures for light redirection and energy transfer can be traced back to Hermann Oberth in 1929, who suggested orbiting mirrors to illuminate cities or modify climate [7]. Although visionary, these early concepts lacked the robotic infrastructure and control systems needed for practical realization. It wasn’t until decades later those engineers like Buckingham and Dr. Ehricke conducted more detailed investigations, including automated deployment mechanisms, remote operation, and adaptive reflector orientation [6-7].

The integration of robotic systems into such architectures gained traction with SOLARES, a 1980s program that explored electricity generation using 80,000 km orbiting reflectors with a capacity of 220 GW (Figure 1) [7]. NASA also examined these possibilities in a 1982 report focused on space-based illumination via geostationary reflectors deployed by the Space Shuttle, designed to autonomously reflect sunlight to key industrial zones [7].

Although that project was not realized by the U.S., similar ideas were later developed by Russian scientists, reinforcing the global relevance of autonomous orbital platforms for energy and infrastructure missions. Today, with the advent of advanced robotic manipulators, modular assembly systems, and AI-based control, the deployment and realignment of SBSP structures in orbit is increasingly feasible.

Robotic Deployment and Autonomous Operation of Solar Sails

The evolution of solar sail technology has increasingly incorporated elements of automated deployment, autonomous control, and robotic precision, transitioning from conceptual prototypes to fully functional systems in space. These innovations form the backbone of Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) infrastructure, where modular and self-directed systems are critical for large-scale orbital operations. In 1993, the Russian Space Agency launched Znamya 2, a 20-meter diameter mirrored disk designed to project a beam of sunlight onto Earth’s surface. Originally envisioned as a prototype for a solar sail, Znamya 2 was repurposed as a space mirror for terrestrial illumination. It successfully deployed in orbit, casting a luminous spot approximately 5 km wide that swept across Europe-from southern France to western Russia-at a velocity of 8 km/s. The reflected light was comparable in brightness to moonlight [8]. Although limited in control autonomy, Znamya 2, (Figure 2) represented one of the earliest large-scale demonstrations of deployable reflective structures in orbit.

A significant leap in both technology and autonomy came with JAXA’s IKAROS mission in 2010-the first solar sail to successfully navigate interplanetary space. IKAROS was equipped with a polyimide film embedded with solar cells for power generation and liquid crystal-based attitude control devices, allowing for real-time adjustment of sail orientation based on solar radiation pressure [9]. These features enabled autonomous navigation and energy management, representing an early integration of distributed sensor networks and adaptive control in sailbased propulsion. Building upon its success, JAXA has proposed follow-up missions targeting Jupiter and the Trojan asteroids, underscoring the growing strategic role of solar sails in deepspace exploration [10].

The most recent advancement in autonomous solar sail technology is NASA’s Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3), launched in April 2024 aboard a Rocket Lab Electron rocket from New Zealand. Designed as a technology demonstrator, ACS3 tests the use of lightweight composite booms to deploy a square-shaped solar sail spanning approximately 9 meters per side. The entire system is integrated within a 12U CubeSat, showcasing the feasibility of miniaturized, self-contained sail systems for scalable applications. This mission is aimed at validating automated deployment mechanisms and sail stability, with potential applications in space weather monitoring and asteroid reconnaissance-two domains that benefit from continuous positioning and low-propellant maneuverability [11].

In 2025, JAXA initiated the PIERIS (Powered Innovative Earth-orbiter with Reorientable Inclined Sail) project under the JAXA-SMASH (Small Satellite Rush Program). PIERIS aims to develop an ultra-small solar sail satellite with integrated attitude-orbit control capabilities. The project has transitioned to the satellite development phase, with a target completion date set for March 2027. This initiative represents a significant step toward the realization of compact, autonomously controlled solar sail spacecraft for various space missions [12]. Together, these missions illustrate a clear trajectory toward the robotic deployment and autonomous operation of orbital systems, reinforcing the foundational role of automation and intelligent control in the future of sustainable space energy infrastructures.

Autonomous Infrastructure and Sustainable Potential of Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)

Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP), once perceived as a futuristic and economically distant alternative, is now being reevaluated as a technically feasible and increasingly viable energy solution. This shift reflects global initiatives aimed at ensuring access to affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy for all by 2030 [12]. SBSP systems offer unique characteristics: they are carbon-neutral, secure, continuously operational, and deployable via automated platforms, positioning them as a strategic solution for sustainable baseload energy. The concept-popularized by Isaac Asimov’s short story Reason-has since evolved, driven by reductions in launch costs, the rise of the private space sector, and advancements in wireless power transmission, robotic deployment, and control systems. Contemporary designs such as the Integrated Symmetrical Concentrator (ISC), Omega, and ALPHA architectures utilize High-Concentration Photovoltaic (HCPV) panels, autonomous tracking, and phased-array beaming. These systems are now part of active roadmaps in countries like the US, UK, China, and Japan [13-14].

As illustrated in (Figure 3), SBSP designs often envision a geostationary platform or lunar-based collector system transmitting energy toward orbiting reflectors. These platforms use robotically deployed photovoltaic arrays, capable of redirecting and concentrating solar energy. Captured light is converted into electrical power and then transmitted via microwave beams to large Earth-based rectennas-ground receivers the size of airportsefficiently transforming orbitally collected energy into usable electricity [15].

At an altitude of 22,240 miles (GEO), such platforms benefit from over 99% solar availability, circumventing issues of nighttime, cloud cover, and weather variability. This uninterrupted exposure allows for steady collection of over 5,000 megawatts of sunlight, producing over 2,000 megawatts of clean, dispatchable energy [16]. The system can also support synthetic fuel production, desalination, and direct grid integration.

Benefits and Design Concepts of SBSP Systems

SBSP architectures rely on three principal stages:
• Solar energy collection via autonomous orbital arrays,
• Conversion into microwaves or lasers, and
• Wireless transmission to Earth-based antennas [15-17].

Innovative SBSP configurations proposed in recent literature include:
• A solar power satellite at the Earth-Sun L2 point,
• A geosynchronous satellite with no moving parts, and
• A non-tracking phased-array design [17-18].

Key benefits of SBSP:
• Uninterrupted solar exposure (99% uptime).
• Zero greenhouse gas emissions.
• Secure and non-invasive land usage.
• Applicable to remote areas, disaster recovery, or water treatment.
• Stimulates space transportation and aerospace employment.

Technical Challenges and Engineering Progress

Despite its promise, SBSP systems face engineering hurdlesprimarily the wireless power transmission over thousands of kilometers. Current designs include the onboard conversion of solar to microwave energy, which is then beamed to ground stations (Figure 4). These beams must be tightly focused and precisely directed using automated tracking systems and adaptive beam-steering algorithms [4] [16-17].

Additional challenges include:
• Radiation and micrometeoroid damage to orbiting platforms.
• Efficiency loss in wireless transmission.
• High initial costs for deployment and testing.
• Need for scalable robotic deployment and maintenance.

Still, the benefits-especially in carbon footprint reduction and energy reliability-are substantial. In geostationary orbit, solar platforms avoid Earth’s diurnal cycles, collecting energy nearly continuously and mitigating over 10 billion tons of annual CO₂ emissions from fossil sources [12].

Japan has taken a leading role, with the 2015 ground tests by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries successfully transmitting 10 kW over 500 meters using microwaves. While efficiency data were undisclosed, this marked a pivotal step toward orbital-scale SBSP testing [19]. Given Japan’s post-Fukushima shift away from nuclear energy, SBSP offers a critical pathway to energy security and climate resilience.

Robotic Control and Adaptive Autonomy in SBSP Platforms

The successful implementation of Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) systems depends not only on orbital deployment, but on the autonomous, long-duration operation of large-scale infrastructure. With limited possibilities for human intervention, the integration of robotic control systems, self-correcting mechanisms, and adaptive autonomy becomes indispensable [4] [12].

Modern SBSP platforms must operate with minimal mechanical intervention, adjusting orientation and tracking efficiency in real time. Missions such as JAXA’s IKAROS demonstrated how liquid crystal elements embedded in ultra-light sails could autonomously manage attitude through differential reflectivity-a principle applicable to orbital positioning and beam steering in SBSP systems [9-10]. This approach eliminates the need for propellant, relying instead on photon pressure and control electronics to adjust orientation.

Looking ahead, Japan’s continued leadership in solar sail innovation, as seen in the development of the PIERIS project, reinforces the importance of compact, intelligent control systems for sustained orbital activity [10]. These systems utilize sensors and feedback loops to maintain stability, even amid environmental disturbances such as solar storms or micro-meteoroid impacts [14-16].

In addition, automated deployment mechanisms for reflectors and photovoltaic arrays-essential to megastructures described in SBSP scenarios-require synchronized, modular robotic systems. These are envisioned to operate as multi-agent assemblies, capable of autonomous docking, fault detection, and selfreconfiguration [15-17].

Health-monitoring and diagnostics are also key, enabling onboard systems to detect and respond to degradation in solar panels or transmitter modules. Techniques used in current ground testing of wireless transmission systems, such as Mitsubishi’s 2015 microwave demonstration [18], highlight the need for precision alignment and automated beam tracking-a function well-suited to adaptive control algorithms and embedded AI.

Despite these complexities, the deployment of space-hardened robotics and real-time control systems remains within technical reach [20-21]. Combined with simulations using platforms like MATLAB/Simulink and FPGA validation, these systems form the backbone of what could soon become the first generation of autonomous orbital energy infrastructure [4] [12] [16].

Conclusion

Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) is no longer a distant concept but an increasingly viable solution to meet global energy demands with low environmental impact. This review has highlighted the critical role of robotic deployment, adaptive control, and autonomous operation in enabling SBSP platforms to operate reliably in the harsh and complex environment of space.

Historical missions, such as IKAROS, and recent developments like ACS3 and PIERIS, demonstrate the transition from theoretical models to operational technology. These systems show that it is possible to integrate solar energy collection, orientation control, and wireless transmission into compact, self-sustained satellites. Furthermore, emerging architectures rely on modular robotic assemblies, multi-agent coordination, and real-time onboard diagnostics, aligning with the next generation of orbital infrastructure. Challenges remain, particularly in energy transmission efficiency, radiation resilience, and economic scaling. However, as private and governmental actors continue to invest in SBSP, the integration of autonomous robotic systems will be essential for scalable deployment and operation.

In conclusion, robotic infrastructure is not just a supporting element-it is a defining enabler of SBSP. As the world seeks sustainable energy solutions for a net-zero future, investments in space-based technologies must prioritize automation, intelligence, and adaptability at their core.

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