Abstract

Through combinatorial screening programs, it is identified that more than 40% of compounds are less soluble or poorly soluble in aqueous solvent or water. Using the conventional method, the formulation of such molecules is complicated and has various formulation issues. As nanoparticles have a diameter of less than one micron, if molecules with such solubility problems are formulated as pure drug nanoparticles, then it will increase the solubility as well as bioavailability and a stable form of a drug can be achieved. Thus, by using nanotechnology, a drug can be delivered in the form of nanoparticles which will provide greater solubility, better efficacy and most important thing is targeted delivery can be possible. Different nanoparticles have been investigated as effective to transport drugs and many other medical purposes. Liposomes, polymers, dendrimers, magnets, gold, quantum dots and hydrogels are some examples that can be used as nanoparticles. From these types of liposomes, polymers, dendrimers and hydrogels are mainly used for delivering drug. The study’s aim was to review various types of nanoparticles as well as to describe nanotechnology with their importance in drug delivery.

Keywords: Nanoparticle; Nanotechnology; Bioavailability; Drug delivery

Abbreviations:API: Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient; PLGA: Polylactic/Glycolic Acid; PLA: Polylactic Acid; PCA: Poly Cyanoacrylate; PEO: Polyethylene Oxide

Introduction

Nanoparticles offer a potential revenue to minimize the problems associated with drug delivery systems by maximizing drug bioavailability and stability Banerjee et al. [1]. In case of pulmonary drug delivery, drugs can be delivered into the deep lungs by administering it as nanoparticles, that is an amazing advantage for drugs that are absorbed systemically in the body. Moreover, the administration of poorly water-soluble nanosuspension drugs is a rapidly expanding area that has gotten a lot of importance because of the benefits it offers in terms of minimizing toxicity and increasing drug efficacy by removing the co-solvent from the solution in the formulation Wu et al. [2]. It has been conveyed that the shape of nanoparticle shows an important influence about biological targets and their relationships, therefore it brings a huge difference in the effectiveness of formulation. Though, Oral delivery of nanoparticles is primarily focused on spherical particles, which may not be suitable for many applications Banerjee et al. [1].

A significant and long-standing goal of the pharmaceutical industry in case of developing a dosage form is to generate therapeutic agents that can be administered to particular parts of the body in a targeted manner or specific site of action to enhance the drug’s safety by maximizing therapeutic index. Systemically administered drugs provide a significant benefit, but they can also cause negative side effects or adverse reactions. Chemotherapy drugs, which are used to treat cancer, have been renowned examples of finding a balance between effectiveness and toxicity in the past. In case of destroying cancer cells, cytotoxic compounds have the potential to be very effective but regular cells can also be harmed which may have negative and potentially life-threatening consequences. For such reason, drug targeting nanoparticles are being produced. Drug targeting aims to bring drugs to the exact location or site of action, at the right dosage, and for the right amount of time Kingsley et al. [3]. Nanoparticles are classified in pharmaceutics as a distinct internal phase comprising an active pharmaceutical component with physical dimensions less than 1 micron in size in an external phase Merisko-Liversidge [4]. Nanoparticles are particles of sizes ranging from 10 to 1000 nanometres Rao & Heckler [5]. Based on their structure, function, and morphology, nanoparticles are classified as liposomal, polymeric, nanocrystals and solid lipid nanoparticles Wu et al. [2].

The pharmaceutical industry has produced and sold many nanoparticulate pharmaceuticals over the last three decades, with a focus on intravenous drugs such as intravenous dietary fat emulsion and liposomal products Merisko-Liversidge [4]. One of the major problems in drug delivery sciences is how to deliver an adequate dose of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) at the right time to the right body site. For the successful drug delivery systems size is one determining factor and that is why nanoparticulate form of drug is required. The Noyes-Whitney equation states that, the surface area of particles increases as particle size is reduced and the increased surface area facilitate dissolution process, so achieving higher dissolution rates and it causes the improvement of the bioavailability Peltonen et al. [6]. One of the primary objectives of a nanoparticle-based dosage type is to reach the targeted delivery to the specific site for localizing action subsequently maximizing therapeutic effect and monitoring of therapeutics for minimizing side effects Yohan & Chithrani [7].

Nanoparticles

About 35 years ago, nanoparticles were invented for the first time. Vaccines and cancer chemotherapy agents were designed primarily as carriers for them. Nanoparticles are colloidal particles that are stable and contain biodegradable polymers or lipids. In the nanoparticulate system, drugs may be absorbed on the surface of the particle, or it can be entrapped inside the polymer/ lipid, or dissolved in the matrix Kingsley et al. [3]. Cells absorb nanoparticles more readily than macromolecules, for such reason, it has the potential to be an efficient mode of transportation and distribution Suri et al. [8].

Structure

A nanoparticle may be divided into two- or three-layers Christian et al. [9]:
a) a functionalized surface.
b) a shell material that is applied deliberately.
c) a core material.

Surface: Surfactants, metal ions, polymers and small molecules can all be used to functionalize a nanoparticle’s surface. An easy method for making aqueous dispersible nanoparticles is to prepare them with a charged surface. On the other hand, many materials lack suitable surfaces for the stabilization of localized charges. It is normal to use a small molecule that will form a covalent-like bond with the particle’s surface and also include charge-carrying groups in many of these situations Henglein & Giersig [10].

Shell: This is a coat of material that is chemically distinct from the central material. In certain ways, the most outer layer of any inorganic nanomaterial may be called a shell because it differs from the nucleus or core. The word shell, on the other hand, is commonly used to refer to a second layer that has a completely dissimilar configuration than the main material, rather than a chemical difference that occurs by chance because the particle is at the top layer. The quantum dots with a core of one element and a shell of another element are known as core/shell quantum dots., such as one element is cadmium selenide, and a shell of another, such as zinc sulphide, are excellent examples of these materials Malik et al. [11].

Core: This is literally the nanoparticle’s centre and is most often used to denote the nanoparticle itself. In the physical sciences this is a popular concept, where the properties of the nanoparticle under investigation are linked to the structure of the core, or in some cases the core and shell Wuister et al. [12].

Drug delivery system focused on nanotechnology

Nanoparticles may be used at the specific site of disease to increase the absorption of drugs that are poorly soluble in targeted drug delivery. Nanoparticles make it easier to target drugs to a particular site where it can perform desired action. Doxorubicin, dexamethasone, 5-fluorouracil, and paclitaxel are several anti-cancer drugs that have been created with nanomaterials and have proven to be effective. Polylactic/glycolic acid (PLGA) and polylactic acid (PLA) modified nanoparticles were used to encapsulate dexamethasone. Dexamethasone is an anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory chemotherapeutic agent. In Figure 1, a diagram depicting the comparison between targeted and untargeted drug delivery systems is shown. At first the drug binds to receptors found in the cytoplasm and causes the drug-receptor complex to form. After that, the drug-receptor complex is delivered to the nucleus and cell proliferation genes are expressed in a particular way. Formulations containing drugloaded nanoparticles keep releasing larger concentrations of drug at the proliferation site for a long period of time, and vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation was totally inhibited Suri et al. [8].

Nanoparticle Types

Liposomes, dendrimers, polymers, gold, hydrogel, quantum dots and magnetic nanoparticles are some of the drug delivery nanocarriers that have been tried as drug delivery systems Wilczewska et al. [13]. Nanoparticles can be categorized in three classes based on their chemical composition such as inorganic, organic and hybrid. Each category consists of more than a few types of nano formulations. In the following Table 1 different types of nanoparticles are mentioned Mauricio et al. [14], Silva et al. [15].

Liposomes

Liposomes are spherical lipid structures made up of cholesterol and non-toxic phospholipids Yih & Al-Fandi [16]. It is a membrane with two layers containing lipid molecules with amphiphilic properties. In 1965, the liposome’s structure was identified for the first time and in 1970s they were suggested as a drug delivery nanoparticle model Zhang et al. [17]. Depending on the lipid used in the manufacturing process different characteristics of liposomes can be engineered. Liposomes are made of natural substances. They are completely secure carriers of drugs that are appealing and can move through the bloodstream for an extended period of time. They can sustain a lengthy procedure for releasing of drug and cancer cells are targeted without damaging healthy cells Yih & Al-Fandi [16].

Liposome’s mechanism can be simplified by saying that, when phospholipids are placed in water, bilayer vesicles are formed by providing sufficient energy like sonication, heating, homogenization, or other methods Mozafari et al. [18]. When critical micelle concentration is gained then bilayer vesicles are formed. The critical concentration of lipids in water is the point at which lipids form micelles or a bilayer structure Shukla et al. [19]. A liposomal nanoparticle can be produced by encapsulating the drug in aqueous core, conjugating or chelating the drug on liposome surface and embedding the drug into lipid bilayer. Three approaches to incorporate drug into liposomes are shown in Figure 2.

Polymeric Nanoparticles

Any type of polymer nano-sized particles is referred to as a polymer nanoparticle. But it is used specifically for polymer nano capsules and nanospheres Lu et al. [20]. Nanospheres are objects that make up a matrix, matrix particles are those whose entire mass is made up of hard and the molecules are either encapsulated inside the particle or adsorbed on the matrix’s sphere surface. Generally, nanospheres are spherical in shape, but nonspherical shape of “nanospheres” are also available. Nano capsules are vesicular systems, and it works as a reservoir, in which a core or central part made of liquid is bounded by a robust shell of material Rao & Geckeler [5]. The two main types of nanoparticles nanosphere and nano capsules are shown in Figure 3 Christoforidis et al. [21].

Dendrimers

Dendrimers are reactive and macromolecules with strongly branched three-dimensional nanostructures Liu & Fréchet [22]. It is appropriate to use dendrimers in drug delivery for three primary explanations. The first one is a drug’s appearance in several copies that may produce a multivalency impact. The second one is the poor solubility of many drugs in water. When a drug is formulated with dendrimers it gains enhanced solubility thus increasing the bioavailability also. The third reason for using dendrimers for drug delivery in biology is due to their relatively large size and because of this property they are retained by the kidneys and not filtered Caminade & Turrin [23].

Gold nanoparticles

In chemistry, gold nanoparticles have a long and illustrious tradition, at the time of the Roman Empire, gold nanoparticles were used for decorative purposes to cause glasses to become stained. Gold nanoconjugates have a broader use in cellular biology and as therapeutic agents Giljohann et al. [24]. Nanoparticles made of gold have only recently become common as a promising candidate for delivering a variety of payloads to their intended destinations. Tiny drug molecules or massive biomolecules may be the payloads, for example- proteins, DNA, or RNA. The release of these therapeutic agents must be effective for effective therapy. By internal or external stimuli, the release could be triggered. For the purpose of transporting and discharging pharmaceuticals, the unique chemical and physical properties of gold nanoparticles are taken advantage of Ghosh et al. [25].

Magnetic nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles have been playing a dynamic role in medicine and bio nanotechnology. On the basis of their interaction with electromagnetic radiation, they are used in in vivo diagnosis and therapy. The major problem associated with magnetic nano systems is that particles have a tendency to accumulate so causing embolization or coagulation within the blood stream and leading to block the flow of blood. Another undesirable side effect is most of the magnetic nanoparticles reach to liver because of their more density and causes more cytotoxicity. Small particles with good surfactant, or polymer/metal/silica/carbon coating will provide long time stability to the particles without aggregation/ agglomeration or precipitation, thus the limitations can be reduced Namdeo et al. [26].

Quantum dots

Semiconductor nanocrystals are another name for quantum dots Qi & Gao [27]. It represents a robust design and engineering platform of nanoparticle drug delivery vehicles Probst et al. [28]. Quantum dots have distinct and interesting optical properties. And these properties arise its usability. It has distinctive characteristics such as multiple fluorescence colours are excited concurrently, enhancement of signal brightness, photobleaching resistance and size -tenable light emission. One of the most crucial uses of quantum dot is that it seems that the drugs are being delivered in a traceable manner, since it has the potential to include drug carrier engineering design concepts and to learn more about the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of potential drugs.

Hydrogels

Three-dimensional polymeric structures are known as hydrogels that have the ability to absorb massive amounts of water or biological fluids. –OH, –CONH–, –CONH2, and –SO3H– are hydrophilic groups that are found in polymers and contribute to the formation of hydrogel structures, and it is the reason that they have a strong desire to consume water. Instead of dissolving, hydrogels have a swelling behaviour in the aqueous surrounding environment. Generally, the release of a drug from hydrogel is done by diffusion in a passive manner and it is the most common mechanism Hamidi et al. [29].

Production

Polysaccharides, synthetic polymers and proteins are among the materials that can be used to make nanoparticles. The choice of matrix materials is influenced by a number of features, some of them are given below Mohanraj & Chen [30]:
a) Nanoparticles with a certain size are necessary.
b) The drug’s intrinsic properties, such as stability and aqueous solubility.
c) Charge and permeability are two surface characteristics to consider.
d) Toxicity, biocompatibility and biodegradability are all factors to consider.
e) The desired drug release profile.
f) The final product’s antigenicity.
g) The following methods have been used to make nanoparticles the most frequently:
h) Prepared by preformed polymer dispersion.
i) Prepared by monomer polymerization.
j) Prepared by hydrophilic polymer’s ionic gelation or coacervation.
k) Prepared by supercritical fluid technology.
l) Using microorganism.

Performed polymer dispersion

Dispersion of preformed polymers is a popular method for producing nanoparticles that are biodegradable. They are prepared from poly (D, L-glycolide), poly (cyanoacrylate) (PCA), poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) Kumar et al. [31], Li et al. [32]. As mentioned below, this technique can be used in a variety of ways:
Solvent evaporation method: This process involves dissolving the polymer in an organic solvent including chloroform, dichloromethane or ethyl acetate which is often used to dissolve the hydrophobic drug. Emulsifying the polymer creates an oil in water (o/w) emulsion and a surfactant or emulsifying agent is added to the drug solution in an aqueous solution. The organic solvent is evaporated after the creation of a stable emulsion, either by lowering the pressure or by constant mixing. The form and concentration of stabilizer, as well as the homogenizer speed and polymer concentration, were found to affect particle size Kwon et al. [33]. High-speed homogenization or ultrasonication are commonly used to generate small particle sizes Zambaux et al. [34].
Spontaneous emulsification or solvent diffusion method: This is a variant of the solvent evaporation process that has been updated Niwa et al. [35]. The oil phase of this process is made up of the water miscible solvent and a limited water immiscible organic solvent quantity. Turbulence between the two surfaces is produced due to spontaneous solvent diffusion between the two phases, as a consequence of which small particles are formed. The size of the particle can be decreased as the concentration of water miscible solvent increases. For hydrophobic or hydrophilic drugs, both solvent evaporation and solvent diffusion methods may be used. A several w/o/w emulsions with the drug dissolved in the internal aqueous process must be produced when it comes to hydrophilic medicines Mohanraj & Chen [30].

Monomer polymerization

It is a system where in an aqueous solution, monomers are polymerized to form nanoparticles. The drug is inserted by dissolving it in the medium of polymerization or by adsorbing it on the nanoparticles later the polymerization process is finished. By ultracentrifugation, the suspension of nanoparticle is filtered to eliminate several surfactants and stabilizers used in polymerization, and the particles are then resuspended in a medium that is isotonic and surfactant-free. This method for producing polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles has been published Zhang et al. [36], Boudad et al. [37]. The concentration of surfactants and stabilizers used influences the shape of nano capsules and their particle size Puglisi et al. [38].

Coacervation or ionic gelation method

The production of nanoparticles with biodegradable polymers that are hydrophilic like sodium alginate, chitosan and gelatine has received a lot of attention. The process requires combining two distinct aqueous phases, one of which is a di-block co-polymer ethylene oxide or propylene oxide which is called chitosan and another of which is a polyanion sodium tripolyphosphate. In this process, chitosan’s positively charged amino group interacts with the negatively charged tripolyphosphate to create nanometresized coacervates. Coacervates are formed when two aqueous phases interact electrostatically, while ionic gelation occurs when a substance transforms to a gel form from a liquid form under ionic interaction conditions at room temperature Calvo et al. [39].

v

Chemical solvents are used in traditional methods such as solvent extraction-evaporation, solvent diffusion, and organic phase separation, which are harmful to the atmosphere and physiological processes. As a result, since supercritical fluids are environmentally safe, they have been explored as an option for preparing biodegradable micro- and nanoparticles. A supercritical fluid is a liquid that retains a single phase regardless of pressure when heated above its critical temperature. Because of its mild critical conditions 31.1°C, nontoxicity, flammability, and low price, supercritical CO₂ is the most commonly utilized supercritical fluid Jung & Perrut [40].

Nanoparticle’s production using microorganism

Fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes have all been discovered to be proficient of synthesizing nanoparticles either intracellularly or extracellularly. In order to better understand the processes of nanoparticle biosynthesis, microorganisms have been increasingly used in nanoparticle synthesis in recent years. The synthesis of nanoparticles with bacteria and fungi has sparked more interest than the synthesis of nanoparticles with actinomycetes and yeast due to the lower cost. Bacteria and fungi have more advanced technology than actinomycetes and yeast in terms of synthesis Zhang et al. [41]. From various organisms’ nanoparticles can be produced as summarized in Table 2 Singh et al. [42].

Nanoparticle’s production using plants

Plant-derived nanoparticles, which are made from readily accessible plant materials and are nontoxic, are well suited to meeting the high demand for nanoparticles for biomedical and environmental applications. Recently, active gold and silver nanoparticles were synthesized using the leaf and root extract from the medicinal herbal plant Panax ginseng Singh et al. [43- 45], implying that medicinal plants could be used as tools. Metal nanoparticles have also been synthesized using various plant pieces, such as leaves, fruits, stems, roots, and extracts. The actual function and elements that trigger plant-mediated synthetic nanoparticles are still unknown. Proteins, vitamins, amino acids, organic acids and secondary metabolites like heterocyclic compounds, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and polysaccharides have been proposed to play important roles for synthesizing nanoparticles Duan et al. [46]. Synthesis of different nanoparticles using various plant sources are summarized in Table 3 Singh et al. [42].

Characterization

It’s critical to characterize nanoparticles for biological applications, especially when it comes to in vivo delivery Mürbe et al. [47]. Although a wide range of characterization methods have been recognized, obtaining a comprehensive nanoparticle characterization profile remains a difficult job. The time-dependent variations of their chemical and physical properties are a major cause of a defective or under-characterized nanoparticle formulation. Some features of nanoparticles for instance chemical, electrical, biological, optical, topography and morphology can be used to characterize them. In the following Table 4, characterization methods of nanoparticles depending on their properties has been shown Kumar & Dixit [48]. Some difficulties are associated when characterizing a nanoparticle because of their size, surface and aging. In Table 5 some challenges for characterization of nanoparticles are mentioned Hoo et al. [49], Lu et al. [20], Mahl et al. [50], Boyd et al. [51], Widegren & Bergström [52], Brant et al. [53], Murdock et al. [54], Kang et al. [55], Lee et al. [56], Kuchibhatla et al. [57], Rossano et al. [58].

Applications

Nanoparticles may be used for a variety of purposes. Some of the most significant are mentioned below

In medications and drugs

Because of their ability to administer medications in the most effective dosage range, Nanoparticles have attracted growing attention from every branch of medicine, often resulting in increased clinical effects, fewer negative consequences, and improved patient cooperation Alexis et al. [59]. Magnetite and oxidized magnetite are two types of magnetite are the greatest widely used iron oxide particles used in biomedical applications Ali et al. [60]. Over the last few years, developing hydrophilic nanoparticles as drug carriers has been a major challenge. Polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polylactic acid (PLA) nanoparticles have identified as a useful structure for drug administration through intravenous route among the various approaches Khan et al. [61]. Because of their antimicrobial properties, Au nanoparticles are increasingly being used in wound dressings, catheters, and other household products Asharani et al. [62]. Textiles, medication, water disinfection, and food packaging all require antimicrobial agents. In contrast to carbon-based compounds, which are comparatively noxious to biological system or living systems, inorganic nanoparticles’ antimicrobial properties provide more potency to this essential feature Hajipour et al. [63].

In combination drug therapy

The co-administration of two or more medications to a patient is combination drug therapy which is a routine clinical procedure in the treatment of certain types of cancer and infectious diseases Woodcock et al. [64]. When opposed to combinations of free drugs, nanoparticle formulations give some recompenses for multidrug delivery at a time. Precise release of drugs from nanocarriers may help to regularize the pharmacokinetic profile, biodistribution, and stability of chemically distinct drugs with widely differing pharmacological profiles. Long-circulating formulations can either continuously release drugs at regulated ratios or allow individual tuning of each drug’s release rate in ways that would be difficult with rapidly clearing free drugs. Furthermore, stimulusresponsive, targeted carriers in development will co-release drugs in the same organ, tissue, or cell, raising efficacy while minimizing off-target toxicity. For co-delivery of multiple drugs nanoparticles can be designed in different forms as shown in Figure 4 Ma et al. [65].

In drug delivery

A significant challenge in the strategy and production of novel drug delivery systems is delivering drugs precisely and effectively to their target sites at the appropriate time to achieve a controlled release and optimum therapeutic impact. To enter target cells, targeted nanocarriers must move through blood-tissue barriers. They must reach target cells through unique endocytosis and transcytosis transport mechanisms across cellular barriers in order to touch cytoplasmic targets Fadeel & Garcia-Bennett [66]. Nanoparticle drug carriers will cross the blood-brain barrier and the close epithelial junctions of the skin, which usually prevent drugs from reaching their intended target. Nanocarriers have enhanced pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of therapeutic agents as a result of their high surface area to volume ratio, and thus reduce toxicity by preferential aggregation at the target site Li et al. [67]. They find hydrophobic compounds more soluble and thus ideal for parenteral administration. Furthermore, they improve the stability of peptides and oligonucleotides, among other therapeutic agents Emerich & Thanos [68].

As Aantibacterial agent

Silver-based antiseptics have been observed in recent years high prevalence and rise of microorganisms that are immune to multiple antibiotics. The fungus Trichoderma viride was used to biosynthesize silver nanoparticles Fayaz et al. [69]. When aqueous silver (Ag+) ions were exposed to a Trichoderma viride filtrate, they were found to be reduced in solution, resulting in the formation of incredibly stable Ag nanoparticles with a size of 5-40nm. The nanoparticles were also tested for their enhanced antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria using a variety of antibiotics. In the presence of Ag nanoparticles, the antibacterial activities of chloramphenicol, kanamycin, ampicillin and erythromycin were improved against test strains. The results revealed that combining antibiotics with Ag nanoparticles increases antimicrobial efficacy and provides valuable knowledge for the production of new antimicrobial agents Durán et al. [70].

Threats

Aside from their various industrial and medical uses, nanoparticles and other nanomaterials are associated with a range of toxicities, which necessitate basic information in order to properly treat them Bahadar et al. [71], Ibrahim [72]. Some of the threats and toxic effects associated with nanoparticles are given bellow:
a. Nanomaterials are most frequently targeted in the lungs, but they can also penetrate the bloodstream and spread to different organs and tissues, where they can build up and damage organ systems that are susceptible to oxidative stress Ferreira et al. [73].

Nanoparticles have a few key characteristics that may be linked to their pathogenicity. These characteristics area) They can be more harmful than larger particles because they are smaller than 100 nm.
b) They are commonly thought of as fibre-shaped, and as such, they may behave similarly to other pathogenic fibres (asbestos, man-made fibres).

Nanomaterials of different substances exhibit different types of threats or toxicities. Table 6 summarized toxicities of different nanomaterial Bahadar et al. [71].

Future of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery

The therapeutic benefits of nanotechnology-derived drug delivery are becoming clear, and they will soon be linked with any drug administration path [112-120]. Lower treatment rates, lower medication toxicities, improved bioavailability, and greater patient adherence to treatment are all benefits over conventional treatment modalities. Nanotechnology has already had a significant effect on the medical management of cancers, but other medical specialties will also be using these new ways of drug delivery to reach optimum treatment effectiveness. Furthermore, more therapeutically oriented research and development of efficient nanocarriers, such as liposomes, conjugates of improved polymer–drug, polymeric vesicles, dendrimers, micelles and nano capsules, will continue. Finally, implantable drug delivery systems can expand nanotechnology’s application possibilities significantly [121-130]. Intravenous administration is superior to optimized drug release from implantable delivery systems. Implantable drug delivery systems have many benefits, including a longer duration of operation, a lower level of redosing, and increased patient acceptance. While nanotechnology has a bright future, the toxicological effects of nanoparticles must be taken into account. Nel et al. [74] If pharmaceutical research progresses, nanotechnology will convert to more popular in the administration of pharmaceuticals. The growing attention in this area of drug study reveals the potential and opportunity of nanotechnology-based drug delivery. Nanotechnology will also play an increasingly important role in diagnostics and imaging. Nanoparticle formulation plans offer a way to integrate an old medication into a modern drug-delivery network, providing new possibilities for addressing unmet patient needs for branded drugs that need life-cycle management opportunities [131-133].

Conclusion

Nano-drug delivery systems seem to have a lot of promise in terms of overcoming some of the obstacles to successful cell and molecular targeting. Drug resistance issues in target cells must be addressed, as well as drug transport through barriers must be made easier using nanotechnology Bellah et al. [75]; Howlader et al. [76]; Momin et al. [77-79]; Sm Faysal Bellah et al. [80], Faysal Bellah et al. [81]. The application of a nanoparticles drug delivery system will make it possible for practitioners to administer drugs to target particular body organs or part which will enhance efficacy and reduce toxicity. The value of a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system is potentially giant to improve human health. Medicinal plants provide a diverse range of bioactive compounds used in treating various diseases. These natural products exhibit pharmacological properties, making them ideal for integration with nanoparticles to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Nanoparticles act as efficient delivery systems, improving the bioavailability and targeting of plant-based medicines, offering innovative solutions for disease treatment Bellah et al. [82]; Momin et al. [83]; Ashrafudoulla et al. [84,85]; Rezaul et al. [86] and Ferdous et al. [87].

Acknowledgment

We thank members of our groups for insightful discussions during this study.