Abstract

This review explores the burgeoning field of green hydrogen in India. With its rich renewable energy resources and ambitious climate targets, India is poised to become a leader in this clean energy technology. The paper analyzes the vibrant research landscape, highlighting advancements in electrolysis methods, storage solutions, and utilization applications. Additionally, it examines the growing commercialization efforts driven by supportive policies, rising investments, and increasing industry interest. However, challenges like high production costs, limited infrastructure, and technological limitations remain. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for robust policy frameworks, infrastructure development, technological advancements, and international collaboration to overcome these hurdles. By addressing these challenges, India can unlock the immense potential of green hydrogen, securing its energy security and contributing to a low-carbon future.

Keywords:Green hydrogen; Sustainable fuel; Electrolysers; Hydrocarbon fuels; Global perspective

Abbreviations:CCS: Carbon Capture and Storage; IEA: International Energy Agency; SMR: Steam Methane Reforming; POX: Partial Oxidation; ATR: Autothermal Reforming; PEM: Proton Exchange Membrane, SOE: Solid Oxide Electrolysis; NREL: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; PNNL: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory; AIST: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology; IRENA: International Renewable Energy Agency; SOE: Solid Oxide Electrolyzers; PEME: Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers; Mofs: Metal-Organic Frameworks; LOHC: Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers; Fcvs: Fuel Cell Vehicles; MNRE: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

Introduction

Global energy needs are rising rapidly due to population growth, improved living standards, and industrial expansion in developing countries. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), global energy demand is expected to increase by 50% by 2030. The world is shifting towards cleaner energy sources to address climate change and ensure reliable energy supplies. Green hydrogen, produced using renewable energy, is seen as a potential solution to meet these challenges [1]. To combat global warming and achieve climate neutrality, it is crucial to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and decouple them from increasing global energy demand [2]. Hydrogen supports carbon neutrality and can provide flexibility to electricity grids based on renewable sources, allowing excess energy to be stored, which can later be used to generate electricity, heat or both, thus contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve climate goals, increasing green hydrogen production and usage is essential. Many countries, like Germany, have developed national hydrogen strategies to guide their transition towards a hydrogen-based economy. Germany’s National Hydrogen Strategy aims to establish a domestic hydrogen market, create supportive regulations for infrastructure development, and enhance the competitiveness of its hydrogen industry [3].

Unlike grey hydrogen, which is produced from fossil fuels, green hydrogen is generated solely from renewable energy sources like wind and solar power. This process, known as electrolysis, involves using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, resulting in virtually zero CO2 emissions. However, green hydrogen production requires significant amounts of water and renewable electricity [4]. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has steadily increased over the last two centuries. This level has surpassed the historical peak of 300 parts per million and currently stands at 407.2ppm, continuing to rise. Additionally, the primary sources of hydrogen production today are fossil fuels, which are not considered environmentally sustainable. Natural gas, oil, and coal account for approximately 50%, 30%, and 15% of current hydrogen production, respectively [5].

The growing number of green hydrogen projects worldwide reflects a commitment to a sustainable future, leveraging hydrogen as a versatile and eco-friendly energy carrier. However, the economic feasibility of green hydrogen is influenced by fluctuating renewable energy costs. To accelerate the green hydrogen economy, it is crucial to address challenges such as scaling up electrolysis capacity, developing supportive regulations, ensuring safety standards, and building necessary infrastructure [6]. Green hydrogen, the most sustainable option, is classified as a low-emission technology due to its minimal CO2 emissions of 0.0072kg per kg of hydrogen produced. Blue hydrogen, produced from natural gas with carbon capture and storage (CCS), reduces emissions compared to grey hydrogen, although further improvements in CO2 capture efficiency are needed. Grey hydrogen, produced from fossil fuels without carbon capture, has a significantly higher carbon footprint, emitting 0.178kg of CO2 per kg of hydrogen. Brown hydrogen, derived from coal gasification, is the most polluting, emitting 0.325 kg of CO2 per kg of hydrogen [7].

Types of hydrogen: Hydrogen, often hailed as the “fuel of the future,” is categorized based on its production method and associated carbon emissions. Grey hydrogen, the most common type, is derived from natural gas through steam methane reforming, a process that releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide. Blue hydrogen, produced similarly from natural gas, utilizes carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology to reduce emissions, but this technology is still in its nascent stages. Green hydrogen, the cleanest form, is produced through electrolysis using renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or hydro power, emitting zero greenhouse gases. Black and brown hydrogen, produced from coal or lignite, are the most polluting forms, releasing substantial amounts of carbon dioxide and other harmful pollutants Figure 1.

The selection of hydrogen type hinges on factors like cost, environmental impact, and technological feasibility. While grey and blue hydrogen, though currently more economical, carry significant carbon footprints. Green hydrogen, despite higher initial costs, presents a sustainable, long-term solution for a cleaner energy future. As technology progresses and renewable energy becomes more cost-effective, green hydrogen is poised to gain competitiveness and play a pivotal role in decarbonizing diverse sectors.

Production of hydrogen

Hydrogen, a versatile energy carrier, can be produced through various methods, each with distinct environmental and economic implications. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR), the most common method, involves reacting natural gas with steam to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Partial Oxidation (POX) and Autothermal Reforming (ATR) are similar processes that also release carbon dioxide emissions. Electrolysis, which splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity, offers the potential for producing green hydrogen when powered by renewable energy sources. Types of electrolysis include Alkaline Electrolysis, Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolysis, Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE), and Biomass Gasification. While biomass gasification can reduce carbon emissions compared to fossil fuel-based methods, it still releases some carbon dioxide [8]. The choice of hydrogen production method depends on factors like feedstock availability, energy costs, environmental regulations, and desired hydrogen purity. As the demand for clean energy grows, there’s increasing emphasis on developing sustainable hydrogen production methods, particularly those based on renewable energy sources. Global hydrogen consumption is rising, with the majority still sourced from fossil fuels. However, the outlook for low-emission hydrogen, especially green hydrogen, is promising, driven by advancements in electrolysis technology and increasing investments in renewable energy.

Literature Review:

Notable researchers and institutions [9]

a) National renewable energy laboratory (NREL): A leading U.S. research institution focusing on renewable energy and hydrogen technologies.
b) Pacific northwest national laboratory (PNNL): A U.S. research institution conducting research on hydrogen production, storage, and utilization.
c) Helmholtz association of german Research centres: A major German research organization with several institutes working on hydrogen technologies.
d) National institute of advanced industrial science and technology (AIST): A Japanese research institute focusing on materials science, energy, and other areas, including hydrogen research.
e) International renewable energy agency (IRENA): IRENA is a leading international organization promoting the adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including green hydrogen. They provide technical assistance, policy advice, and capacity building to countries around the world.
f) Hydrogen council: This global CEO-led initiative brings together leading energy companies, industrial corporations, and investors to accelerate the commercialization of hydrogen technologies.
g) Clean hydrogen partnership: Launched in 2021, this international partnership aims to accelerate the development and deployment of clean hydrogen technologies and reduce their costs.

UNIDO Global Programme for Green Hydrogen in Industry: This program focuses on supporting developing countries in adopting green hydrogen technologies and building a sustainable hydrogen economy.

Key research challenges and opportunities

a) Efficient and low-cost electrolysis technologies: Developing more efficient and cost-effective electrolyzers to reduce the cost of green hydrogen production.
b) Advanced Hydrogen Storage Materials: Discovering and developing materials with high hydrogen storage capacity, fast adsorption/desorption kinetics, and good stability.
c) Hydrogen infrastructure: Building a robust infrastructure for hydrogen production, transportation, and distribution.
d) Integration of hydrogen into the energy system: Developing strategies to integrate hydrogen into existing energy systems, such as power grids, transportation, and industrial processes.

Electrolysis technologies

Water Electrolysis, a traditional method, involves splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. Researchers are focusing on developing more efficient and cost-effective electrolyzers like Solid Oxide Electrolyzers (SOECs) and Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers (PEMEs). Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting utilizes sunlight to directly split water, with researchers exploring novel photocatalysts and reactor designs for improved efficiency and stability. In terms of hydrogen storage and transportation, Material-Based Storage leverages advanced materials like Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) and carbon nanotubes for efficient hydrogen storage. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs) offer a promising solution for hydrogen transportation and storage, with researchers developing efficient LOHC systems. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are gaining prominence as clean alternatives to traditional vehicles, and researchers are working on enhancing their performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, hydrogen can be used as a feedstock in various industries like steelmaking and ammonia production. Researchers are exploring ways to decarbonize these industries by replacing fossil fuels with green hydrogen.

Initiatives by various nations

United States: The U.S. has significant investments in hydrogen research and development, including funding for projects related to hydrogen production, storage, and utilization.
a) European union: The EU has ambitious plans to develop a hydrogen economy, including the establishment of hydrogen valleys and the support of hydrogen infrastructure.
b) China: China is investing heavily in hydrogen technologies, particularly in the production of green hydrogen and the development of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
c) Australia: Australia, with its abundant renewable energy resources, is well-positioned to become a major exporter of green hydrogen. The Australian government is supporting various initiatives to develop the hydrogen industry.
d) India: India launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission in 2023, aiming to make India a global green hydrogen hub. The mission aims to produce 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030.

Key strategies and policy measures:

Governments worldwide are actively promoting green hydrogen projects through financial incentives, tax breaks, and regulatory support. Substantial investments are being made in research and development to enhance the efficiency and reduce the cost of hydrogen production, storage, and utilization technologies. Developing a robust hydrogen infrastructure, including pipelines, storage facilities, and refueling stations, is essential for widespread hydrogen adoption. International cooperation is crucial to share knowledge, coordinate policies, and establish global standards for hydrogen technologies. By combining these efforts, the global community is working towards a future where green hydrogen plays a pivotal role in decarbonizing various sectors and achieving a sustainable energy future.

India’s Quest for a Hydrogen Future: A Deep Dive into Research and Development

India, a nation with a strong commitment to sustainable development and energy security, has emerged as a significant player in the global race towards a hydrogen-powered future. Recognizing the immense potential of hydrogen as a clean and versatile energy carrier, Indian researchers and institutions are actively engaged in ground-breaking research to accelerate its adoption [10].

Key areas of research Green hydrogen production

Indian researchers are actively exploring advanced electrolysis techniques, such as alkaline electrolysis and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis, to efficiently produce green hydrogen using renewable energy sources like solar and wind. Additionally, they are investigating innovative approaches like photoelectrochemical water splitting, which harnesses solar energy to directly split water into hydrogen and oxygen, eliminating the need for external electricity. Furthermore, researchers are delving into the potential of microorganisms to produce hydrogen through bio photolysis and dark fermentation processes, offering sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions.

Hydrogen storage and transportation

Scientists are developing advanced materials like metalorganic frameworks (MOFs) and carbon nanotubes for efficient hydrogen storage, offering high storage capacities and improved safety. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs) provide a safe and efficient method for hydrogen transportation, with Indian researchers exploring various LOHC systems based on nitrogencontaining compounds and aromatic hydrocarbons. Additionally, Indian institutions are actively working on enhancing the performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness of hydrogen fuel cells, which are crucial for powering vehicles and stationary power systems.

Hydrogen utilization in diverse sectors

a) Transportation: Researchers are developing hydrogenpowered vehicles, including fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (HICEVs), to reduce emissions from the transportation sector.
b) Industry: Hydrogen can be used as a feedstock for various industrial processes, such as steelmaking and ammonia production. Indian researchers are exploring ways to decarbonize these industries by replacing fossil fuels with green hydrogen.
c) Energy storage: Hydrogen can be used to store excess renewable energy, providing a reliable and flexible energy solution. Indian scientists are investigating innovative hydrogen storage technologies, such as underground storage and compressed hydrogen storage.

Government initiatives and policy support

The Indian government has recognized the importance of hydrogen as a strategic fuel and has launched several initiatives to promote its development:
a) National hydrogen mission: This ambitious mission aims to position India as a global leader in green hydrogen production and utilization.
b) Financial incentives: The government is providing financial incentives and subsidies to encourage investment in hydrogen projects.
c) Regulatory framework: A supportive regulatory framework is being developed to facilitate the deployment of hydrogen technologies.
d) Research funding: Significant funding is being allocated to research institutions and universities to accelerate hydrogen research and development.

By fostering a strong research ecosystem and implementing supportive policies, India is well-positioned to capitalize on the global shift towards a hydrogen economy. The country’s rich scientific talent, abundant renewable energy resources, and growing industrial base provide a solid foundation for a sustainable and prosperous hydrogen future.

Challenges in Hydrogen Storage and Utilization

Hydrogen, despite its potential as a clean energy carrier, faces significant challenges in its storage and utilization. The primary difficulties include:

Onboard storage

a) Low volumetric energy density: Hydrogen has a low volumetric energy density, meaning it takes up a lot of space to store a given amount of energy. This is a major hurdle for applications like fuel cell vehicles, where space is limited.
b) High-pressure storage: One method to store hydrogen is to compress it to extremely high pressures (700-1000 bar). While this increases the energy density, it requires robust and heavy-duty storage tanks, adding weight and complexity to vehicles.
c) Cryogenic storage: Another approach is to liquefy hydrogen at very low temperatures (-253°C). This significantly increases the energy density, but it demands sophisticated cryogenic storage systems, which are expensive and energyintensive.

High pressure

Infrastructure Costs: Building and maintaining a high-pressure hydrogen infrastructure, including pipelines and refueling stations, is costly and requires specialized expertise.
a) Safety concerns: High-pressure hydrogen storage and transportation pose significant safety risks, necessitating stringent safety measures and regulations.

High flame speed

a) Rapid combustion: Hydrogen burns rapidly, making it susceptible to backfires and explosions. This requires careful design and operation of hydrogen-powered systems to mitigate these risks.
b) Leak detection challenges: Hydrogen is colorless, odorless, and lighter than air, making it difficult to detect leaks, which can lead to accidents.
c) To overcome these challenges, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on:
d) Advanced materials: Developing novel materials for hydrogen storage, such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and carbon nanotubes, which can store hydrogen more efficiently and safely.
e) Improved storage technologies: Improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of high-pressure and cryogenic storage systems.
f) Enhanced safety measures: Implementing robust safety protocols and technologies to minimize the risks associated with hydrogen storage and utilization.
g) Fuel cell technology advancements: Developing more efficient and durable fuel cell systems to power vehicles and stationary applications.

Challenges in using hydrogen as a fuel

While hydrogen holds immense potential as a clean energy carrier, several challenges hinder its widespread adoption:

Production challenges

a) Energy-intensive production: The current methods of producing hydrogen, such as steam methane reforming, are energy-intensive and often rely on fossil fuels, leading to significant carbon emissions.
b) Green hydrogen cost: Producing green hydrogen through electrolysis using renewable energy sources is still relatively expensive.

Storage and transportation challenges

a) Low energy density: Hydrogen has a low energy density by volume, making it challenging to store and transport efficiently.
b) Infrastructure: Developing a robust infrastructure for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution requires substantial investment.

Safety concerns

a) Flammability: Hydrogen is highly flammable, and its leakage can pose significant safety risks.
b) Detection difficulty: Hydrogen is colorless, odorless, and can leak undetected, making it difficult to identify potential hazards.

Technological challenges

a) Fuel cell technology: While fuel cell technology has advanced, it still faces challenges in terms of durability, cost, and efficiency.
b) Engine modifications: Modifying internal combustion engines to run on hydrogen requires significant engineering efforts and may compromise performance.

Economic challenges

a) High initial costs: The initial costs associated with hydrogen infrastructure and fuel cell vehicles are relatively high.
b) Economic viability: The long-term economic viability of hydrogen as a fuel source depends on factors like the cost of renewable energy, technological advancements, and government policies.

Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from governments, industry, and researchers to develop innovative solutions and promote the adoption of hydrogen technologies.

By addressing these challenges, hydrogen can become a viable and sustainable energy solution for the future.

Green Hydrogen vs. Petrol/Diesel for IC Engines: A Comparative Analysis

While green hydrogen is often touted as a clean energy solution, its direct use in internal combustion (IC) engines presents a complex scenario. Let’s delve into the comparison between green hydrogen and traditional fuels like petrol and diesel:

Advantages of green hydrogen in IC engines:

Zero Tailpipe Emissions: Hydrogen combustion produces only water vapor, resulting in significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels.
a) Higher octane rating: Hydrogen has a higher octane rating than gasoline, allowing for higher compression ratios and potentially improved engine efficiency.
b) Reduced particulate matter: Hydrogen combustion produces fewer particulate matter emissions, which can contribute to better air quality.
c) Lower energy density: Hydrogen has a lower energy density compared to gasoline and diesel, requiring larger fuel tanks or more frequent refueling.
d) Engine modifications: IC engines need significant modifications to handle hydrogen fuel, including adjustments to the fuel injection system, ignition timing, and combustion chamber design.
e) Hydrogen storage and distribution: The infrastructure for producing, storing, and distributing hydrogen is still under development, which can limit its widespread adoption.
f) Potential for backfiring and pre-ignition: Hydrogenfueled engines can be prone to backfiring and pre-ignition, which can lead to engine damage and reduced efficiency.

While green hydrogen offers significant environmental benefits, its direct use in IC engines presents challenges that need to be addressed. While it may be a viable option for specific applications, such as heavy-duty trucks and buses, the widespread adoption of hydrogen-powered IC vehicles is likely to be limited.

A more promising approach for utilizing green hydrogen in the transportation sector is through fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). FCEVs convert hydrogen into electricity, which powers the vehicle’s electric motor. This technology offers several advantages, including zero tailpipe emissions, longer range, and faster refueling times.

As research and development continue, the future of hydrogen as a fuel for transportation remains uncertain. However, by addressing the challenges and exploring innovative solutions, green hydrogen has the potential to play a significant role in a sustainable energy future.

The State of green hydrogen commercialization: india and global perspectives india’s green hydrogen ambitions

India’s abundant solar and wind energy resources, coupled with strong government support and strategic international partnerships, have positioned the country as a global leader in the green hydrogen race. The ambitious National Green Hydrogen Mission aims to produce 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030, accelerating domestic production and garnering significant global attention.

Global green hydrogen landscape

Globally, the green hydrogen market is still in its nascent stages, but several countries are actively investing in research, development, and deployment.

Key players include

a) Europe: Countries like Germany, the Netherlands, and Norway are leading the way in green hydrogen production and utilization.
b) Australia: With its abundant renewable energy resources, Australia is well-positioned to become a major exporter of green hydrogen.
c) United states: The U.S. is focusing on developing a robust hydrogen infrastructure and supporting innovative technologies.
d) China: China is investing heavily in green hydrogen technologies, particularly in the production of green hydrogen and the development of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

Challenges and opportunities Despite the significant progress, several challenges remain:

a) High production costs: The high cost of renewable energy and electrolyzers is a major hurdle.
b) Infrastructure Development: Building a comprehensive hydrogen infrastructure, including production facilities, storage facilities, and distribution networks, requires significant investments.
c) Technological advancements: Continuous technological advancements are needed to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of green hydrogen production.

However, the potential benefits of green hydrogen, such as reduced carbon emissions, energy security, and economic growth, make it a compelling investment. As technology advances and costs decline, green hydrogen is poised to play a crucial role in the global energy transition.

India and the world are making strides in green hydrogen commercialization, significant challenges remain. Continued investment in research and development, supportive policies, and international collaborations are essential to unlock the full potential of this clean energy carrier.

Despite significant advancements, several challenges remain, including the high cost of green hydrogen production, the need for efficient storage and transportation infrastructure, and the development of robust and durable materials for hydrogen technologies.

Future research should prioritize reducing the cost of renewable energy, improving the efficiency and durability of electrolyzers, developing advanced hydrogen storage materials, and integrating green hydrogen into existing energy systems. By overcoming these challenges and continuing to invest in research and development, green hydrogen can play a crucial role in achieving a sustainable and low-carbon future.

Conclusion

Hydrogen is a key industrial fuel that has a variety of applications including the production of ammonia (a key fertilizer), steel, refineries and electricity. However, all of the hydrogen manufactured now is the so-called ‘black or brown’ hydrogen because they are produced from coal. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. But pure, or the elemental hydrogen, is very scarce. It almost always exists in compounds like with oxygen to form H2O, or water. But when electric current is passed through water, it splits it into elemental oxygen and hydrogen through electrolysis. And if the electricity used for this process comes from a renewable source like wind or solar then the hydrogen thus produced is referred to as green hydrogen. Colours attached to hydrogen indicate the source of electricity used to derive the hydrogen molecule. For instance, if coal is used, it is referred to as brown hydrogen.

Green hydrogen currently accounts for less than 1% of global hydrogen production due to it being expensive to produce. A kilogram of black hydrogen costs USD 0.9-1.5 to produce while grey hydrogen costs USD 1.7-2.3 and blue hydrogen can cost anywhere from USD 1.3-3.6. However, green hydrogen costs USD 3.5-5.5 per kg, according to a 2020 analysis by the Council for Energy, Environment and Water. Hydrogen is a great source of energy because of its high energy content per unit of weight, which is why it is used as rocket fuel.

Green hydrogen in particular is one of the cleanest sources of energy with close to zero emission. It can be used in fuel cells for cars or in energy-guzzling industries like fertilizers and steel manufacturing. Countries across the world are working on building green hydrogen capacity as it can ensure energy security and also help in cutting carbon emission. Green hydrogen has become a global buzzword, especially as the world is facing its biggest-ever energy crisis and the threat of climate change is turning into a reality.

Currently, India spends over $160 billion of foreign exchange every year for energy imports. These imports are likely to double in the next 15 years without remedial action. With this approval, the stage is set for India to become a global champion in green hydrogen. 2 The initial outlay for the Mission will be Rs. 19,744 crore, including an outlay of Rs. 17,490 crore for the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) programme, Rs. 1,466 crore for Pilot Projects, Rs.400 crore for Research & Development, and Rs. 388 crore towards other Mission components. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) will formulate the scheme guidelines for implementation of the respective components. China produced about 33 million tonnes of hydrogen in 2021, making it the world’s largest hydrogen producer. The country aims to establish an ecosystem of diverse green hydrogen applications including transportation and energy storage.

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