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A Review of Dairy Cattle Potentials, Drawbacks & Imminent Outlooks in Ethiopia
Belay Mulat,3*, Hou Yong1 and Yitateku Mulat2/h3>
1China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
2Amhara Agricultural Office, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
3Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
Submission:October 14, 2021; Published:December 03, 2021
*Corresponding author: Belay Mulat, China Agricultural University, Beijing100083 China
How to cite this article: Belay M, Hou Y, Yitateku M. A Review of Dairy Cattle Potentials, Drawbacks & Imminent Outlooks in Ethiopia. Dairy and Vet Sci J. 2021; 15(1): 555904.DOI: 10.19080/JDVS.2021.15.555904
Abstract
This review was provoked with the purpose of examine and comprehend dairy cattle performance, constraints and prospects of Ethiopian dairy production. Ethiopia holds tenth largest cattle population in the world which contributes 45% of the country GDP and almost all rural population of the country are based on livestock as a major source of income. From livestock production dairying is very crucial for farmers income and their major milk sources are cattle, camel and goats. In communal sense the country has mainly three types of dairy production system Rural, Urban and peri-urban. In urban and peri-urban system farmers insist and employed in dairy production as a main business and they contribute only 2% of total country milk production. Whereas the rural system practices subsistence mixed crop-livestock type of production system and they contribute 98 % of total country milk production. The country has diverse topographic and climatic conditions, adequate land resource, high livestock population, suitable agro-ecology, risk free environment, high yielding disease resistant breed and cheap labor force which makes the dairy production more comfortable. Accordingly with this comfortable environment, in the future outlook the country needed strong and competitive investors that can invest in feed processing, modern dairy farming, full milk processing equipment supply and maintenance, marketing and other dairy advisory works. Most importantly, the technology share of developing countries from western people is proven impractical because of socio-economic and climatic differences. The common Ethiopian dairy production constraints that have highly stated in various researchers were lack of AI and veterinary service, skill gap of farmers, high price and inadequate accessibility of feed and improved dairy cattle. Thereof dairy constraints probably display the policy gap of government and their less attention for the sector. Therefore, the absence of dairy sector policy increases uncertainty of future dairy productivity unless the sector policy starts to organize, guide and control it.
Keywords:Dairy cows; Potentials; Constraints; Prospects; Ethiopia
Abbreviations:AI- Artificial Insemination; CI- Calving Interval; CSA- Central Statistics Agency; DMI- Dry Matter Intake; DO-Days Open; E.C- Ethiopian Calendar; EMDIDI- Ethiopian Meat and Dairy Industry Development Institute; FAO- Food and Agricultural Organiation; FCA- First Calving Age; GDP-Gross Domestic Product; Kg- Kilogram; Kg/d- Kilogram Per Day; L-Liter; NSC- Number of Service Per Conception; SHD- Small Holder Dairy
Introduction
The dairy sector is one of fastest growing sector with its significant contribution in employment opportunities and the country economic return in Eastern African countries. In Africa, Eastern Africa covers 68% of the continent milk production which is the first and leading milk production region; and the countries “Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania are among the biggest diary producers” [1].
In Ethiopian agriculture is the major means of economy with about 55 million ha in various agro-ecological zones of unlimited arable land [2]. The highlands of Ethiopia cover over 40% of the country land which is the largest in sub-Saharan Africa and it have a large potential for dairy farming [3]. The country holds diverse topographic and climatic conditions [4], adequate land resource, favorable climate with high livestock population, suitable agro ecology, risk free environment for work, high yielding disease resistant breed and cheap labor force [3], huge livestock genetic diversity and the government found out that livestock as a new source of country development [5]. Besides, there is a durable support from institutions, universities, colleges and agricultural extension workers; thereof all opens an opportunity for
smallholder farmers to wisely use (land, labor and feed source)
to generate income and to attract foreigners for investment [3].
From the country livestock productivity dairy production is a
crucial for farmers income and their major milk sources are cattle,
camel and goats. In thereof milk sources dairy cattle covers 83
percent of total milk production [6], and indigenous local breeds
are dominated around 97-98% with traditional production system
[4], this higher coverage of local cows and their poor production
performance influences people milk satisfaction in the increasing
demand of milk and the country economic growth [7]. In the rural
Ethiopia around 80% of population based on livestock as a major
source of livelihood and the country having a tenth largest cattle
population in the world in accounting 56 million heads and this
covers for 45% of the country GDP [8] and 16% of national GDP
[9].
Dairy farming involved all parts of the country weather
subsistence or in market-oriented position [10]. The country total
annual milk production is 1.0 million tones in all livestock milk
sources and 0.8 million tones only in dairy cattle [9]. The annual
milk gain of cattle covers over 85% of overall milk productivity and
from the total number of livestock 11.4 million cows are estimated
to be milking cows and it reaches around 20.4 percent [8]; and the
average lactating periods of dairy cows were 6 months [11].
Ethiopian livestock sector receives 13% of the country export
earnings and urban and peri-urban areas around three hundred
thousand crossbreed cows are used for milk production with
comparatively better management [9]. Most importantly, in Rural
and Urban areas livestock opens a chance of getting protein richfoods
to fulfil the daily needs of population and also for poor
households it helps to prevent them in keeping their wellbeing
from falling to poverty [8].
In economic point of view, 70% of cost of animal production
is feed and its quantity, quality and science of feeding drives
livestock productivity [5]. For extensive smallholder livestock
farming system grazing is the most practiced types of feeding in
Ethiopia [12]. There are 28 feed manufacturer farmer unions that
distribute feeds throughout the country and 32 privately owned
plants. The constraints of feed processors were absence of raw
materials, lack of market orientation and awareness for utilization
of processed feed makes the farmer unions to work under their
designed capacity and as a result accessibility of processed feed in
Ethiopia are limited [5].
Dairy production system in Ethiopia classified as rural,
urban/peri-urban & commercial systems [8] and the system also
grouped in to highland smallholder, pastoralism, urban and periurban
and intensive system [13]. In communal sense Ethiopian
dairy production system can be divided into Rural, Urban and
peri-urban system [4]. In rural production system, even though
the sector creates more employment opportunity [8] and usually
their adapted local cows are resistant to disease but farmers still
pauses in subsistence level with low income due to their poor
management and husbandry practice [6]. This system as whole
have almost similar management unit and practice subsistence
crop-livestock mixed production system [13] and it mainly
includes pastoralists, agropastoral and crop-livestock producers
of rural lowland and highland areas [8]. On the other hand, in
urban and peri-urban system farmers insist and employed in dairy
production as a main business and mainly started with nurturing
crossbreed cows [14] in around 50-62.5% improved breeds and
their reproductivity mostly based on artificial insemination [6].
However, the reproductivity of rural system existed both cross and
local breeds that normally benefits in bearable to maintain genetic
diversity [14]. The milk production and its value-added product
have the largest share on small holder dairy farmers [15] and
most importantly the country 98 percent of total milk production
produced in rural system [13] but urban and peri-urban system
only contributes 2% of total country milk production [4].
The country dairy sector work division of rural system displays
women are significantly provided in consistent daily income as
a vibrant production extension to home nourishment in family
security. The work of labor in dairy farming are most importantly
adapted as a woman work and 85 percent of the tasks done by
women. On the other hand, in urban and peri-urban system the
household part of family has their own work in dairy production
[15] and the involvement of gender is better than rural system
as men also works in milking, taking milk to collection center,
fetching water, cleaning stalls, taking care of animals and cutting
and carrying forage and grass etc. Therefore in urban and periurban
system women and men involvement have a great value for
stable family income with increased dairy farming productivity
[8].
Genetic improved trait of dairy cattle reproductive rate
is economically importance for herd replacement and milk
productivity; however, the influences of environment, diseases,
nutrition and management constrains especially tropical cows
have low fertility rate [12]. The breed preferences of Ethiopian
farmers chosen crossbreed cows due to high milk yield but
unsuccessful in rural production system because of their weak
management with cow’s poor resistance for disease. Whereas
for local cows as they are disease resistant and even alive in poor
management but having depleted measure in productivity of low
milk yield potential [15] which is a main challenge for the diary
sector. While there is a potential to increase indigenous cows
performance unless lack of management mostly feed insufficiency
that makes local cows unrecoverable [3].
Usually, farmer’s strength of dairying increases with the
increment of milk yield with their prospered cost-effectiveness;
this consistently motivates them to work hard energetically,
retrieving the farm to have greater proportion of cross breed
cows, good manure management, wise utilization of feed sources,
finding a new way to be accessible in dairying information and
exercise dairy production experience. Besides, they care for the futurity of the farm through preparing for further expansion
and fulfilling veterinary service, AI, market, and look over other
dairying facility options [14]. The major imperative factors for
the strength of dairy productivity are promotion on nutritional
awareness, change feeding habits, urbanization and population
growth; most importantly population growth enforcing to
increase milk demand and supply chain at the same time within
the organized dairy value chain [16]. The empowerment of dairy
sector enterprises helps dairying to be influential and this will
occur when the country government focus and handle farmers in
coordinate with dairy cooperatives to have enough information
access for nutrition, market, breeding, hygiene, health, milk
handling and transportation and to join in a vertical relationship
with extensionists and their actors [15].
In Africa population rate of milk demand displays suggestively
more increment than milk productivity [17]. The country dairy
productivity contributes a great role for poverty alleviation;
however, the sector faced many challenges such as deficient skilled
manpower, lacks modern animal husbandry management practice,
lacks advanced technologies [3], and also shortage of processing
equipment supply and its high cost, low market access, absence of
enough urban and pre-urban dairy producer led cooperatives, poor
market linkage of producer with value chain actors [16]. Thereof
influences tensioned the milk producer and processer industries
against the work power of their installed performance [13]. On the
other hand, animal health issues are more influencing constraint
for Ethiopian dairy sector due to their extremely poor feeding
practice which decreases fertility rate, diseases resistance ability
and finally increases mortality and morbidity rate [3]. In tropical
area’s internal parasites like liver fluke and round worm and also
flies and ticks are commonly existing. Thereof and other parasites
existence is probably due to lack of dairy farm herd management
like feeding method, waste management, calf feeding and care
[12]. The dairy health problems resulted from both considered
and unconsidered abandoned constraints. The factors that come
from managements like housing, feeding and veterinary service
causes cows to be offensive, unhealthy, unwholesome and ended
their life productivity unsuccessfully [15]. The inaccessibility
of veterinary service, transportation difficulties and veterinary
professional shortage stresses dairy sector in funding for loss
of animals in diseases. The outcome of this all veterinary low
performance comes from government monopolized service and
their less attention for livestock sector [4].
In the success of dairy productivity market accessibility is
one of the major determinant factor as market limits power of
production in fluctuation of demand and supply, and inaccessibility
of inputs [6]. In Ethiopia market access is limited and the marketing
system is not well organized as the dairy production is dominated
by smallholder farmers [6]. Formal and informal market are
both available but unlicensed informal market are dominated
especially in rural system [4]. In formal market most cooperatives
and producers were deliver fresh milk to consumer whereas the
informal market milk may pass from two or more market agents
or directly to the consumer [16]. Generally, Ethiopian dairy
products export and inside consumption market is generally
professed poor because of lack of market focused products, lack
of production resource information, lack of infrastructure and
agricultural inputs facilities (road, electric, transport, land, water
and feed) and lastly illegal trade with illegal market are the most
influences that drive dairy productivity inaccurately [3].
The government of Ethiopia hasn’t applied any policy for milk
quality [12], for dairy product marketing and processing at zonal
as well as national level in safeguarding consumers health and
for the product predictability [15]; only 13% of milk processing
plant practiced milk quality control and pasteurization [12]. On
the other hand, outside imported milk share influences the prices
of country producers and the country producer marketing system
also impact diary production as informal system dominates and
leads around 88% over formal market [4]. For thereof most dairy
constraints, absence of dairy sector policy was the main cause
and because of this the dairy productivity status shows today
extremely doubtful figure.
Nowadays, the country dairy sector categorized as a transition
level in shifting way to market oriented economy; as opened
market, participation of the private sector and advancement
of smallholder dairy are the main features of this phase. The
increment of population and expansion of urbanization stirred and
drives the outlook of Ethiopian forthcoming dairy productivity. In
population augmentation, it is predictable that developing more
dairy industry places in a major focus as it will have a major
role in distributing milk for children and younger generation
[3]. Therefore, the establishment of dairying and dairy industry
with strong extension service and devotedly heartening farmers
are strongly advisable for diary sector futurity. This Review was
initiated with the purpose of examining Ethiopian dairy cattle
potential, their drawbacks and the forthcoming opportunities
of Ethiopian dairy production. The paper particularly covers
the country dairy cattle production systems, production and
reproductive performance, constraints, policy, forthcoming
outlook and other related dairying status of the country.
Dairy Production in Ethiopia
Dairy production system
Dairy production system in Ethiopia classified mainly based
on objective and scale of production, location, agroecology,
market orientation, access inputs and services. On the basis of
climate, landholding capacity and integration with crop the dairy
production system grouped as small-scale rural, peri-urban and
urban [6]. Dairy system also classified as rural, urban/peri-urban
& commercial systems [8]. On the other hand, Ethiopian dairy
production system classified into four main groups highland
smallholder, pastoralism, urban and peri-urban and intensive
system [13]. The rural production system highland rural or smallholder pastoralists are parts of rural system [18] and
intensive or commercial system occurs in both peri-urban and
urban production system [8]. In communal sense Ethiopia has
mainly three types of dairy production system Rural, Urban and
peri-urban [4].
Urban dairy production: This system is located in cities or
towns and farmers are specialized dairy producer for sale of fluid
milk without or little land resources and few numbers of farmers
practice commercial dairy farming unless practiced in state
sector. As the system farmers main source of income is milk, they
manage animals in feed by growing fodder for dairy cattle on the
segment of land or all land [4]. In urban system the location has
a better infrastructure [8] with easily accessibility of inputs such
as artificial insemination, feed, market [6], market information
and other resources which makes them to start dairying based
on market orientation [8]. Besides this accessibility of resources
and having better market orientation makes them to hold higher
exotic blood level of dairy cattle breeds [19]. There is a dominant
improved breeds managed by herd labor [4] and these owner
farmers are forced to buy feeds for better annual milk production
and their breed improvement as they are located in cities. Farmers
sold their milk 73 percent of total production, 10 percent takes as
consumption, 9.4 percent gives for their calves and the rest 7.6
percent process as butter and ayib [12].
Peri-urban dairy production: The system producer farmers
are mostly located in cities and small towns. The labor costs
are raising and population density is high due to the expansion
of urbanization [12]. In behind population augmentation, land
for production is shrinking; some farmers graze their animal in
roadside because of limited access for cultivable or pastureland.
The country most improved breeds owned in this system; in which
cows are 50% crosses to high grade breeds and they feed their
dairy cows with purchased and home-produced hay by delivering
both sources as an option [6].
Rural production system: Rural production system of whole
farmers have almost similar management unit and practice
subsistence crop-livestock mixed type of production system
[13] and it mainly includes pastoralists, agropastoral and croplivestock
producers of rural lowland and highland areas [8]. The
usual type of feeds and feeding are stub grazing, crop residue and
native pasture. The indigenous cows are common breeds for the
system [13]. The most usual milk surpluses are butter ghee, ayib
and sour milk which marketed through informal way.
The constraints that influence the system were limited access
to formal market and low input-output technology, unable to
get incentives [8], seasonally dependency due to feed shortage
and variability of rainfall [13], and inaccessible for market,
transportation and other facilities due to the area remoteness
makes various inputs to get in higher cost and decreases farmers
productivity with higher cost of production [6]. Thereof influences results to be 85% of farmers production kept for consumption and
only 7% of it sold in market [6].
Furthermore, rural dairy production system contributes
98% of total country milk production and their milk surplus
determinates includes demand of household and neighbors,
production season, market accessibility and their herd size
potential [12]. Farmers usually provide cattle for the purpose
of milk, meat, hides and drafting power and also have a cultural
impact on their social status [8], and threshing ripen crops, their
dung as a manure [20].
Most importantly rural farmers lack awareness on leadership
for achievement of current resource and service, and to work
dairy farming as a business as they mainly practice mixed croplivestock
farming system. Thereof constraint influences farmers
to have small number of cows in average 3-4 indigenous and 1-2
cross breed cows with their low productivity of 400–600 liters in
180-210 lactation days. Generally, in this system, even though the
sector creates more employment opportunity [8] and local cows
are resistant to disease [6] but farmers pauses in subsistence level
with low income due to their poor management and husbandry
practice.
The brief of urban/peri-urban versus rural system
In urban and peri-urban system farmers insist and employed
in dairy production as a main business and mainly started with
nurturing crossbreed cows [14] in around 50-62.5% are improved
breeds and their reproductivity mostly based on artificial
insemination [6]. whereas in the rural system the existence of
both cross and local breeds benefits to maintain genetic diversity
[14]. Milk production and its value-added product have the largest
share on small holder dairy farmers [15] and most importantly
the country 98 percent of total milk production produced in rural
system [13] but urban and peri-urban system only contributes 2%
of total country milk production [4].
In peri-urban and urban production system small number
of farmers are linked the business than in rural system but they
are specialized, commercially-oriented and more focused types of
farmers. They target crossbreed and ranking productive dairy cows
on average 2-3 crossbreeds or exotic breeds with the potential of
milk production 1120-2500 liters over 300 lactation days. For
rural system they practice subsistence mixed crop-livestock type
of production system and their herd size reaches 3-4 indigenous
cows and 1-2 cross breed cows but their productivity is very low
around 400–600 liters in 180-210 lactation days [8].
The location of urban and peri-urban system is located more
resource accessible areas in and around cities and towns; they
feed industrial by product as concentrate like oil seedcakes and
wheat bran. But for rural system feed in stub grazing, crop residue
and native pasture [13] due to limited accessibility of market and
low input-output technology [8] which makes them to remain in low productivity. In the milk supplier formal channel urban and
peri-urban producers are the leading supplier; but most milk
processors owning their dairy cows is a common practice to
ensure adequate milk supply and quality similar with cafés and
restaurants [8]. On the other hand, rural system was unable to get
incentives [8], and are inaccessible for market and transportation
which decreases farmers productivity, paying higher cost of
production and as a result they consume 85% of their production
[6].
Labor and Work Division
Work division in rural systems: In rural dairy production
women significantly provided in consistent daily income as a
vibrant production extension to home nourishment in family
security [8]. The survey that have conducted in Essera district
at Southern Ethiopia states that women were the performer of
marketing for dairy products [21]. The work of labor in dairy
farming are most importantly adapted as a woman work and
85 percent of the tasks done by women. In milk processing at
formal and informal domain women are the most worker in the
highlands. In such a way the involvement of women is vital to
the accomplishment of the visualizations of proposed Ethiopian
government plan. Women and children are ended almost all dairy
farming activities in rural system specifically in remote areas. The
habit of doings in attention for animal’s care, processing and for
value addition activities mostly Women are the accountable body.
In this way on cattle activities women devote their time on average
8-9 hours. From these hours more time around 4-5 hours/day they
give for preparing forage, feeding and watering. On the rest time
they give for milking, storage and cleaning the room. whereas, men
doings are related with marketing activities and children involved
in keeping animals and milk collection [8].
Work division in urban and peri-urban system: In this
system the household part of family has their own work in
dairy production [15] and the involvement of gender is better
than rural system as men also works in milking, taking milk to
collection center, fetching water, cleaning stalls, taking care of
animals and cutting and carrying forage and grass etc. So that in
this system women and men involvement have a great value for
stable family income with increased dairy farming productivity
[8]. Mostly females participate in dairy farm operations which
includes: milking, cleaning (barn and milk containers), milk
storing, preserving, quality control, processing and marketing
(milk, butter and other products). On the other hand, dairy herd
management practices all family members were participated.
The herd management activities that are mostly used for
extension service and training includes feeding, watering, health
management, pasture management and heat detection [15].
Employed labor in dairy sector: In Ethiopian highlands the
largest rural employer is placed and the rural production system
daily base full-time jobs are estimated to be 224.5 within the milk
production of one thousand liters, from these 70% are family and
30% are hired labor. Whereas within similar one thousand liters
of milk production in peri-urban/urban production system 26.3
full-time jobs are needed and from these labors 65 % and 35% are
family and hired labor respectively. In annual basis its estimated
that 200 and 300 days are a work duration of rural system and
peri-urban/urban production system respectively [8].
The number of labors present on dairy sector were varies
season to season; in months June to August, January to May and
on the rest months there were a surplus, shortage and sufficient
laborers respectively. Most farmers fence shortage of labor due to
absence of readily available labor for dairy production. Farmers
usually used hired labor for barn cleaning, forage development,
feed collection, transporting grasses and plowing land. When their
children were at school, they used to manage their livestock by
tethering, stall and home feeding methods [15].
Potentials of Ethiopian dairy cattle
The country highland areas are expected to be the potential
area of dairy production as they have better agro-climatic
condition and low disease pressure [22]. In livestock productivity
dairy production is a crucial income for Ethiopian farmers; in
which cattle, camel and goats are their major milk sources. In the
country dairy sector, dairy cattle covers 83 percent of total milk
production [6] and 97-98% of dairy cattle breed dominated by
indigenous local breeds with traditional production system [4].
Although dairy productivity contributes a great role for poverty
alleviation but the country dairy sector deficient in skilled
manpower, lacks modern animal husbandry and management
practice, and also lacks advanced technologies and advanced
people that can operate technologies. Thereof reasons influence
milk producer and processer industries against their installed
performance [3].
Lactation length: in definition lactation is the time of cows
after parturition that starts to secret milk until the time of drying
off. In dairy cattle lactating cows, there are three lactation stages
early, medium and late lactation. The lactation periods of dairy
cattle differ in various places for example Debre Birhan, Sebeta,
Shambu, Melkasa, Welenchiti, Gonder, Bahir Dar Zuria lactation
periods were 9.7, 10, 10.53, 10.8, 11.4, 9.17 and 10 months
respectively. Mostly cows give milk for ten months lactation
period and two months rest in drying off but in Ethiopian case
lactation periods were in between minimum of 8.7 months which
is recorded in Debre Markos and the maximum reaches 12 months
in Kombolcha [23].
Milk yield potential: The milk yield of each cows depends
on month of calving, feed availability and milking experience
[15] and also on type of breed, production system and their
management [23]. The highest milk was recorded in the first
four months of lactation periods and after that it declines; in the months May to September milk yield increases due to high supply
of feed [15] and in higher cities produce more than lower cities
due to the availability of input facilities [23]. Local cows have a
low genetic potential for milk production and it tickles as a major
limitation for supply chain; for this reason selection of breed and
appropriate management is needed to make them productive [15].
For Ethiopian endogenous cattle the average milk yield reaches
1.5 to 2 liters/day in 150-180 lactation days [12] and also reported
their productivity is lower around 0.5 to 2 liter/day in 160 to 200
lactation days. On the experience of ILCA participating farmers the
first and second lactation periods shows significant variation; in
which the first lactation of crossbreed cows annual average milk
yield was 1769 and 2347 liters for the second lactation [12].
The average dairy cattle milk potential of indigenous cows
in Haramaya district was 2.23 liter/day [24] and as general in
rural system the local breed average milk yield of indigenous
breed was 1.1 to 2.1 liters per day and for peri-urban and urban
system it reaches around 2.7 to 1.9 liters and 3 to 3.4 liters per
day respectively [25]. On the other hand, for improved crossbreed
cows daily milk yield in the cities of Bishoftu, Akaki, Adama and
Hawassa were 11.6, 10.8, 11.3 and 10.32 average liters per day
respectively that shows more comparable milk yield between
them. Whereas for Bahir Dar, Gonder, Debre Markos, Bahir Dar
Zuria and three towns of Horo Guduru Wollega zone were 7.8, 7.3,
5.2 and 7.21 liters per day respectively. When we compare Bahir
Dar Zuria from thereof, it shows the least producer in milk yield
[23] and finally for the range of individual cross breed cows’ daily
milk yield in urban and peri-urban areas of the same milkshed
area were recorded 10 to 16 and 9.5 liters for urban and periurban
respectively [8].
Dairy cattle herd size: In peri-urban areas of Addis, Gonder,
Bahir Dar, Adwa and Axum milk shed areas the average herd size
were 11.8, 6.5 and 6.5, 4.83, and 4.83 TLU respectively. whereas
for Debre Markos, Hawassa city, Boditi, Shashemene and Dilla
the average herd sizes were 7.35, 3.15, 3.9, 3.34 and 1.51 per
household. The Haramaya district farmers holding capacity was
two to three cows about 33.3 percent of them and the rest 66.7
percent owns only one cow per household [24]. Most importantly
thereof herd size and farmers dairy productivity determined with
the accessibility of improved feeds, breeds, industry byproducts,
market, land, AI service and other management activities [23].
Reproductivity of dairy cows
In dairy farming dairy cattle reproductive rate with genetic
improved trait is economically importance for herd replacement
and milk productivity. Although reproductivity has great
importance for dairy farming but due to environmental, diseases,
nutrition, management and genotype constraints tropical cows
have low fertility rate [12].
Artificial insemination: In various dairy production system
accessibility of artificial insemination is wide-ranging and this is
one of the major challenges that influence dairy producers [14].
Farmers use artificial insemination as a genetic improvement
based on its accessibility. The accessibility of AI is high in
and around Addis Ababa, due to this reason farmers artificial
insemination usage reaches about 77.4 percent and the rest 3%
for natural mating, 19.4 use both as optional. on the other hand, in
Shashemene, Dilla, Bishoftu, Gonder and Boditi around 50,50, 22.5,
20, 48.4 percent of them use artificial insemination respectively
and the rest use natural mating and both natural and AI. For Debre
Markos town they only use natural mating; this indicates that
the accessibility of artificial insemination has a great difference
between towns and continues to regions of the country [23].
First calving age (FCA): In Ethiopia dairy cattle first calving
age of endogenous and cross breed heifers reaches around 35.1
to 53 months and 29.8 months for local and cross breed cows
respectively. In this age of heifers there are some endogenous and
exogenous factors that affect puberty. From endogenous includes
genotype, growth and body weight; and exogenous factors consist
of season of birth, rainfall, nutrition, thermal stress, rearing
method, parasite and diseases [12].
Calving interval: In dairy farming to maintain the continuality
of the farm with obtaining appropriate economic profit and
reimbursement one year of calving interval is commonly
supposed and acknowledged. As the researcher explored CI highly
differs between 25, 50 75 percent levels of cross breeds which
were 22.15±4.22, 17.52±4.36, and 15.70±3.21 for 25,50 and 75%
respectively [22].
On the other hand, due to the factors of nutrition, season, milk
yield, parity, suckling and uterine involution; one year interval is
not to do so for the country production system, accordingly cross
breed dairy cattle calving interval on central highlands shows
25.95 months [12].
Days open (DO): in definition days open meaning: the
waiting days of dairy cows between calving and conception and
the increment of these days reduces cow’s profitability because
of reduced milk production, breed cost increment, replacement
cost and increased risk of culling. In west Gojjam zone the days
open was recorded for local breeds 294.60±43.20, whereas for
crossbreeds of 25, 50 and 75% of blood level were 112.80±42.00,
109.80±54.00 and 103.50±36.00 days respectively. In Andassa
breeding ranch DO of Fogera breed shows 280±3.4. on the other
hand, for highland and lowland Zebu breed DO were 215 and 250
days respectively [22].
Number of services per conception (NSC): in Amhara
region West Gojjam zone average value of NSC for local and
different blood level was much different. As the researcher stated
local cows and crossbreed of 25, 50 and 75% blood level recorded
1.67±0.61 and 1.71±0.40, 1.51±0.34 and 1.66±0.41 respectively,
and overall 1.63±0.44 service times per conception. On the other
hand, NSC of 1.28, 1.54, 1.59, 1.54 and 1.52 were recorded for
Metekel ranch, North Gonder, Burie district and Andassa livestock
research center and Assella Town respectively [22] (Table 1).
Days open and number of services per conception (N=180)
Source: (M. Kassahun, 2016)
Managements of Dairy Cattle
Feed and nutrition: The farmers feeding in urban dairy
farming mostly zero grazing is common practice due to their
small land holdings [26]. In economic point of view, 70% of
cost of animal production is feed and its quantity, quality and
science of feeding drives livestock productivity [5]. For extensive
smallholder livestock farming system grazing is the most practiced
types of feeding in Ethiopia [12]. There are 28 feed manufacturer
farmers union that distribute feeds throughout the country and
32 privately owned plants. The constraints of feed processors
such as absence of raw materials, lack of market orientation and
awareness for utilization of processed feed makes the farmer
unions to work under their designed capacity and as a result
accessibility of processed feed in Ethiopia are limited [5].
The feeds hay and crop residues are most common feeds with
concentrate of available agro-industrial byproducts [23]. In many
countries 60 percent of dry matter intake is crop residue, and in
Ethiopia 13 million tons of crop residues are produced in annual
base but it has low voluntary intake due to its low digestibility
rate. In some parts of Ethiopia farmers practice urea treated
straw and this increases their milk yield 0.5 to 2 liters per day; on
thereof treatment farmers fence major impacts like higher price
of urea and plastic, ammonia smell, time constraint for harvesting
and also storage difficulty [12].
In Bishoftu farmers experience to feed their cows concentrate
feeds of noug seedcake and wheat bran and other forages like
crop residues, stored hay, vegetables, fruit wastes and legume
forages which is very important for multi-agricultural advantage
and environmental protection. Feeding fruit wastes for animal
diet clean and conserve the environment, but most rural areas
lack such experiences in taking fruit wastes as animals feed before
outflows on the environment. In most tows like Jimma, Badalle,
Ambo, Gimbi and Naqamte, Adet, Merawi they commonly feed
cows in grazing and stall feeding. whereas the towns in nearby
Addis like Ejere and Hinchini tows as there is more demand and
farmers are more informed in dairying, they fed animals improved
feeds concentrates and some forages in stall feeding; and in Addis
Ababa hay with wheat bran concentrate feeding were main feed
sources. In Hawassa, Adwa and Aksum, they practice grazing, crop
residues, hay and local beer byproduct (atella) whereas in Jimma,
Shambo, Fincha & Kombolcha commonly feed their cows noug
cake and wheat bran concentrates; in addition to thereof Jimma
farmers fed cows green feed as a basal diet [23].
Usually in Ethiopia feeds of cultural byproducts like atella
from traditional beer and other non-conventional feeds utilized as
a supplement, and are less competitive between farmers. There
are ten identified non-conventional feeds in Addis Ababa milk
shed area; which includes lentil hull, faba bean hull, field pea hull,
rough pea hull, tela atella (local brewery residue), Katicala atella
(local liquor residue), cabbage waste, orange peel, banana peel
and poultry litter. Thereof non-conventional feeds divided into
four main groups: wastes of vegetable and fruits, poultry litter,
Atella and pulse hulls [12].
The country dairy sector landholdings: Agriculture is the
sustenance of Ethiopian economy with about 55 million ha in
various agro-ecological zones of unlimited arable land [2]. The
highlands of Ethiopia cover over 40% of the country land which
is the largest in sub-Saharan Africa and it have a large potential
for dairy farming. But because of the absence of attention on
dairy sector farmers incapability to access land influences in
expansion of dairying, feed production and building other dairy
enterprises; and most importantly the higher cattle population
with inadequate feed availability as a result of restricted land for
pasture establishment [3]. The agricultural system that practices
in the highland areas are predominantly subsistence smallholder
mixed crop-livestock type of farming [4]. Although farmers land in rural system competing for crop production and planting forages but mostly herd size decides the land limit. Farmers that
have larger herd size of both cross and indigenous breed cattle is
motivated to plant forages in better land holdings than the smaller
one [14]. The augmentation of human population is on the means
of urbanization increment which affects grazing land and fodder
feeds to be deficit for dairy farming; in this way the continual of
dairy production hangs on the hand of land influences [4].
In west Gojjam zone the average landholdings were 1.88, 1.13
and 0.29 ha per household for rural, peri-urban and urban areas
respectively; whereas for overall mean of Bure district, Mieso
district, and Mecha and Bahir Dar Zuria landholdings were 1.33,
1.76 and 2.66 respectively [22].
In rural area the grazing land is 0.37 ha whereas for national
and regional its decreases around 0.26 and 0.31ha respectively. In
Bale high land, Mieso district, and Bure district mean grazing land
was 0.33, 1.32 and 0.07 ha per household respectively. The reason
behind farmers access for these less landholdings was because
of population increment in today urbanization expansion in that
more land used for crop cultivation [22].
Dairy cattle housing: The variation of dairy cattle housing
depends on system of production, agro-ecology, physiological
stage and classes and/ or breeds of milking cows. Usually milking
cattle housed at night time. There is a higher significant difference
in their type of houses either roofed or simple corral with no
roof in between local and cross breed and in urban and periurban
system. Whereas rural production systems mostly keep
local cows together with their living house [22]. Most livestock
housing constructed based on environmental conditions weather
tropical or temperate climates for reducing stress and disease by
giving attention for dairy management activities such as nutrition,
milking and sanitation of housing influences in disease exposing
ability [12].
Manure management: urban and peri-urban farmers have
better dairying awareness and good manure management; even
though they have small land resource but their awareness for
dairy production motivates them to perform better dairy manure
management practice. Train farmers for manure management to
use for many agricultural advantages like biogas and soil fertility
plays a great role for the health of stock in safeguarding the
environment [14]. Accordingly, the rural farmers in Ethiopia that
practice biogas decreases one tenth of their total Urea and DAP
chemical fertilizer usage in one production year [27]. In household
level especially heads have a better positive mandated influence
for manure and other management activities [14].
The strength of dairying: The major imperative factors for
the strength and increment of dairy productivity are promotion
on nutritional awareness, change feeding habits, urbanization and
population growth; most importantly population growth plays a
crucial role in forcing to increase milk demand and supply chain
at the same time within the value chain [16]. Farmers strength
of dairying increase with the increment of milk yield; the greater
gain of milk yield consistently motivates them to work hard
energetically, retrieving the farm to have greater proportion of
cross breed cows, good manure management, wise utilization
of feed sources, access to information, exercise dairy production
experience and prepare for further expansion of the farm
through fulfilling the accessibility of veterinary, AI, market, and
other services and facilities [14]. The farmers adopting power of
improved dairy cows and dairying performance results in higher
employed workforces and also the minor increment of both
crossbreed and local cows will open favorable policy, scientific
intervention and strong extension service for enlarging dairy
production [16].
Dairy farm record keeping: The importance of recording
dairy cattle is for keeping control, follow up and decide for
each animal based on their recorded history. Most importantly
recording is used for managing and checking the farm economics
weather the animal productivity is going well or not with yesterday
history start from breeding; birth date, sire, dam, calving date,
vaccination date, health problems, treatment, milk yield, feed and
all other dairy farming related records. If the specific animal is not
going well; it is decided to cull based on the performance recorded
history. Record keeping is not well known for smallholder farmers,
even for modern dairy farms there is a minimal purposive
awareness among farmers and because of this they are confused
in identification between animals. Records should be simple and
easy to understand and to use clear exemplary records information
as an input for veterinarian diagnoses and other management
activity. Generally, as record keeping have many imperative
advantages for the continual of dairy farming so that farmers
needed to have awareness first on the purpose of recording and
then preparing well organized records for presenting easily to
each animals [12].
Dairying, market and extension service
Milk processing: On the current status of Ethiopian diary
sector most dairy industries own their dairy farm to ensure
supply and quality of milk and they are thirty-two in number [28].
The country population growth increases dairy demand and dairy
processing industries also continuously increases time to time.
Fresh milk was the major consumers preference as it has high
fat content, vicinity, affordable price, long established experience
and dairy product consumption increased year to year due to
awareness creation and income generation of consumers [16].
In dairy sector cost of packaging, demand and supply fluctuation,
milk quality, poor husbandry practice, lack of transparency and
accountability are influences that constrain dairy processing [6].
In Bahir Dar Zuria and Mecha district of Northwestern Ethiopia
the traditional products include butter, ghee Ayib, Arera, Ergo,
Zure and Metata Ayib; and from these Zure and Metata Ayib are
the region unique products [29].
Milk consumption: Dairy products were taken lonely or
with other food stuffs and mostly consumed in zone level and
transported to other parts of the country. Children are prioritized
in consumption of milk whereas cottage cheese and butter were
not prioritized as it consumed with other food stuff [15]. In urban
and peri-urban dairying from the total milk production, they sold
73 percent, 10 percent used for consumption, 9 percent takes
for feeding calves and the rest 8 percent processed into butter
and cottage cheese [8] and for rural system 85% of farmers
production kept for consumption and only 7% of it sold in market
[6]. The abstaining of Christians in taking animal product for over
200 fasting days/year affects milk productivity in fluctuating milk
demand. In these fasting times farmers enforced to travel in slow
production as a result of most milk processors decrement in milk
buying price [3].
In the last ten years back remembrance of dairy sector that
has passed with much increment in milk production about
1.5 to 2.2 and 2.9 billion litters in year 2001 to 2005 and 2010
respectively which is linked with the increase in number of cows
for population augmentation and demand requirement from
the year 2001 to 2010; even though in the preceding years their
annual consumption rate was declined from 26 kg to 16 kg in the
year 1980 to 2009 interval periods. Thereof milk consumption
and production rate ascribed that, the country population
augmentation and milk production are extremely mismatched [4].
Milk marketing: In developing countries, the power of
participation of smallholder farmers to market for selling and
exchanging their agricultural product alleviates poverty. Dairy
as a sector contributes for the people in security of asset and
market participation for the poor and as improvement area for
smallholder farmers [30]. In the success of dairy productivity
market accessibility is one of the major determinant factor as
market limits power of production in fluctuation of demand and
supply, and inaccessibility of inputs [6]. In Ethiopia market access
is limited and the marketing system is not well organized as the
dairy production is dominated by smallholder farmers [6]. The
choice of selling for milk significantly depend on the time spent
after milking. the delayed milk has higher probability in selling
directly for consumer than collector. The probability of selling
milk directly for consumer increases by 5% in delaying one hour
from the normal sending time [31]. The seasonal variation of milk
marketing affects farmers in lowering milk price. Therefore, it’s
important to have a contractual agreement with milk collector
and processor for giving guarantee of sustainable marketing for
producers [32].
There is high increment of demand in urban areas especially
for pasteurized milk and unstable supply because of the rural
areas inefficient delivery system and inadequate market
outlet [28]. Formal and informal market are both available but
unlicensed informal market are dominated especially in rural
system [4]. In formal market most cooperatives and producers
were deliver fresh milk to consumer whereas the informal market
milk may pass from two or more market agents or directly to the
consumer [16]. The market constrains dairy sector as only 5% of
raw milk is sold in commercial market [28]. Generally, Ethiopian
dairy products export and inside consumption market is generally
professed poor because of lack of market focused products, lack
of production resource information, lack of infrastructure and
agricultural inputs facilities (road, electric, transport, land, water
and feed) and lastly illegal trade with illegal market are the most
influences that drive dairy productivity inaccurately [3].
Informal market: The term informal market to mean:
participant farmers in market without license and government
intervene for the purpose of low cost of operation and high
producer price in comparing with formal market. The system
farmers have no enough knowledge for milk handling with
inadequate cooling system, water resource and other material
facilities [6]. The long fasting period of Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahedo believer limits milk informal market especially for
smallholder farmers [12]. In Haramaya district farmers practice
almost 94.3 percent of respondents in informal marketing system
and they sold their milk 61.54% of their production and from this
milk 72.13% it was sold directly for consumer. This indicates that
collectors, traders and other supply chain actors were almost out
of work in which it affects to increase unemployment rate [24].
Formal market: The closeness of market facilities,
government enterprise and milk groups makes the country
most energetic situations for fresh milk formal marketing in
smallholder farmers [33]. Although this type of market appears
in the last decades in Addis Ababa and major regional towns but
it has much lower share of market than neighboring countries
about 2% and for Kenya and Uganda 15% and 5% respectively. In
this market system milk is released to processing plant through
private collectors or cooperatives and suppliers much care of milk
quality than informal system to control their milk rejection at
delivery quality tests [6].
Dairy extension and training services: The Ethiopian
farmers of total household less than one percent householders
were served in livestock extension package. From livestock
extension service more than half (60%) was given for poultry
development whereas for dairy development was less than twenty
percent. This indicates that less extension service was derived the
dairy sector. In upgrading the sector government extensionists
should organize for directing farmers filling their skill gap,
subsidy and fortify future advancements [11]. Most importantly in
financial service smallholder dairy (SHD) farmers are in influence
and their knowledge and skill of dairy farming is limited; farmers
that have dairy background is needed to have practical training at
least for two to three months [12].
The dairy productivity needs extension of technical support
until consumption in related with managements such as
consultation service, feeding and nutrition, breeding, sanitation,
milk hygiene, health (human & animal), marketing, handling and transportation to and from producer to consumer, collector and processor etc. [3]. The Farmers training leads for dairy development
and creates an important intervention for sector modification.
The most stated dairy actors capacity building intervention were
dairy producer, processor and value chain actors and essentially
dairy institutions have a mandate in training for filling the gap of
farmers in coordinating with extension workers [16]. Farmers are
not accessible for extension information to supply technologies
that disturbs productivity in decreasing technology inputs and
marketing. Consequently high comprehensible linkage with all
dairy actors in means of extensionists are needed [3].
Milk quality and Relevance remarks
Status of milk quality: The most determinant factors that
influence milk quality of dairy sector includes storage facilities,
environment, milking condition, storage and transportation
system until consumption, health and hygiene for dairy cattle in
stock and humans in milking. The major important diseases in
dairy related illness in consumption of unpasteurized milk from
over 90% of reports was bacteria [34].
In dairy sector mixing solid and liquid adulterates in milk
are common practice and for this constrain farmers most are
adulterants [15] and the adulterates continues until consumption
[3]. Farmers should get awareness training in the importance of
milk quality, controlling methods and build their mind attentively
to know for whom they are producing and they should get a
reasonable price to ensure their consistent production [15]. In
cleaning of milking equipment, personnel hygiene and washing of
udder before milking decreases bacterial loads in milk and which
contributes for the quality of processed milk product. However, in
urban, peri-urban and rural production systems only 56%, 22%
and 2% of sampled respondents wash cow’s udder before milking
respectively [35].
The equipment’s that farmers most dominantly used in milk
storage and marketing were plastic jerrycans which affect milk
quality in contaminating through uncleaned milk fat droplets as
those materials are not easy to clean due to their narrow opening
[24].
In fact, after milking to safeguard milk quality cooling
milk below 4°C is scientifically recommended but in Ethiopia,
Haramaya district small-scale milk producers of all selected
respondents didn’t use any cooling system before selling their
milk [24]. There are some innovative solar ice technologies that
are practiced in smallholder level for keeping milk cool that
needs further improvement and also it is advisable to share other
country experience for milk quality constraint mitigation [34].
Ethiopian dairy sector has a responsibility in reducing
foodborne disease and giving guarantee for consumers safety
with pragmatic work that ended in action beyond their policy
and organizational rules. The institution EMDIDI mostly fit to
organize public bodies that are working in dairy sector. However,
there is mandate overlapping between dairy institutions
especially EMDIDI with other institutions. The governing bodies
of Ethiopian food safety consists of: Food, Medicine and Health
Care Administration Authority, Feed administration and control
authority and Veterinary [34].
As an exemplary model from Ethiopian dairy industry; Hiruth
milk processing and production enterprise have done a great
job in creating a positive relation with their milk suppliers that
contributes immeasurable role for milk quality and on their
hopeful productivity. This enterprise makes easy accessibility of
feed for their milk suppliers in credit basis, they train them and
also, they build system of payment based on their milk quality
which motivates them to produce in giving much care for milk
quality. In contrast, for some other processors paid similar price
for all and due to this reason most smallholders adulterate and
motivate for carelessness [34].
Relevance remarks: The absence of country milk quality
standards in safeguarding people health is an important challenge
that stresses consumers with incredible milk product and only
13% of milk processing plant practiced milk quality control and
pasteurization [12]. The government of Ethiopia particularly
dairy sector has a responsibility in reducing foodborne disease
and giving guarantee for consumers safety with pragmatic work
that ended in action beyond their policy and organizational rules
[24]. As a result, the most important remarks in dairy sector to
be considered primarily before applying milk quality standards
especially for developing countries like Ethiopia should proclaim
the accessibility and delivery of inputs, land tenure security,
filling skill gap and other extension supports for milk supplier
smallholder farmers, and finally giving time for exercising the
possible setup of dairy productivity with structured strong
supply and demand chains. There must be a comprehensible
work in leading smallholders for producing trustful quality dairy
products with informing policy, advising development agencies
and designing dairy intervention project which are inherently
given as a responsible for dairy and livestock professionals and
veterinarians [34]. Most importantly before any quality standard,
farmers and other dairy actors should get awareness training in
the importance of milk quality, controlling methods and build
their mind attentively to know for whom they are producing for
and they should get a reasonable price to ensure their consistent
quality production [15].
Driver drawbacks of country dairy farming
Developing countries dairy farming continues at lower level
due to absence of appropriate technology, agro-ecological and
socio-economic conditions of smallholder farmers. There are
many opportunities in Ethiopia to grow up dairy productivity
as one important country economy return [15]; however, the
sector has influenced various drawbacks in several years and
still it didn’t meet its potential [6]. The most shortcomings that
farmers struggle in dairy production were absence of cultivation land for improved forages, absence of grazing land, inadequate veterinary service followed by Infectious and parasitic diseases,
lack of AI service and low productivity of indigenous breeds [4];
and shortage of quality and quantity of feeds, absence of clean
water, inaccessibility improved dairy breeds, lack of skill in
farm management and husbandry practice [12]. Ethiopian high
population augmentation constrains farmers to cultivate more
land and purposively insisted in traction animals as the annual
population growth rises in 2.9-3 percent of total population [12].
Although the current consumption rate of milk in Ethiopia is
increasing around 19 liters per person but there are disparities
in various areas. In addition to urbanization resulted population
growth Ethiopian dairy productivity also derived by income
levitation and in their lifestyle [23]. Some of dairy production
drawbacks that impact Ethiopian dairying are discussed as
follows;
The remoteness of dairy inputs: In milk production and
processing progression, input supply places the first pathway
to take place in milk production to consumption channel. These
inputs include AI, veterinary service, improved forage, pasture
seeds, credit services, and value-added technologies [15] and
cows/heifers, bulls, feeds, milk can and cooling tank, processing
plant and other processing equipment’s, improved breeds,
infrastructure (roads, market, electric, water and others) and
milking machine etc. [6]. The milk processing and dairy farming
inputs accessibilities are varied from system to system in which
in urban and peri-urban systems are more accessible than rural
system [6].
Farmers wasted time for water in long distance travel which
makes the dairy productivity more stressful; especially for lactating
cows the water need is extremely essential. The frequency of water
that livestock takes varies depending on season, water source and
species; in dry season livestock takes water every day whereas in
wet season takes every two days. Farmers give water priorly to
dairy cows about average 25 liters of rationed per day. Although
water for dairy production is highly important but continuously
water was unavailable in dairy producer households [15]. Besides,
in rural areas there is a limited road access for milk collection in
which farmers go far a long distance in leg to reach the collection
center. As farmers are influenced by inconvenient infrastructure,
even though they can produce more milk but unable to sell their
milk easily. This infrastructure makes milk to delay and exposes
for spoilage; most importantly the absence of chilling center
on potential collection area and on long distanced travel cars
results milk quality problem in processing and consumption as
non-qualified input gives non-qualified product [3]. The major
input supply chain interventions for urban dairy were introduce
improved forage seed, feeding supplementation with concentrate
and the last crop residue utilization techniques. While for preurban
areas the major interventions were crop residue utilization
techniques, improved forage seeds, feeding supplementation
with concentrate feed and supplying improved dairy cows. Most
importantly improved forage seeds and crop residues were very
important interventions [16].
The shortage and poor quality of feeds stresses animals in
decreasing milk yield, increasing mortality rate of young calf,
lengthen parturition interval and retarded growth rate [15] and to
be easily a carrier of diseases and lastly productivity life span ended
with high mortality rate of lactating cows [3]. The feed inadequacy
influence was because of shortage of land, variability of weather
condition, absence of feed processing companies and skill gap of
informative technologies like silage making, hay making and urea
treatment which makes feed the major challenge for dairy farmers
[15]. Moreover, notably local breeds of Ethiopia are stress resistant
and people still practice traditional feeding practice for them in
giving less attention for productivity that constrains indigenous
cows in all production systems [4]. The common problems of
urban dairy producers in rank were shortage of improved feed,
high feed cost and lastly shortage of land for forage development.
Whereas for peri-urban constraints in rank were high feeds
cost, shortage of improved feed, and inadequate extension
services. From thereof the major drawbacks were shortage of
improved feed and high feed cost [16]. In the constraints of feed
costs, unavailability of feed and roughness compliance to their
circumstance about 15.4% of farmers were interrupted from dairy
business [15]. The common dairy production constraints were
lack of AI and veterinary service, inadequate accessibility of feed,
the higher price of feed and dairy cows [6] and skill gap of dairying
and processing, absence of AI professionals, quality testing
instruments, simple processing machines, maintenance service
and extension services, dairy production and processing inputs
are highly tensioner for the dairy sector [4]. Most importantly the
technology share of developing countries from western people
are proven impractical because of socio-economic and climatic
differences [12]. As a result the challenge that restraint the people
were low capacity of value chain actors and high demand of cross
breed cows [15]. Generally, in most areas of Ethiopia such as;
Hawassa, Boditi, Shashemene, Dilla, Mekelle, Jimma and Bahir Dar
feed inaccessibility and costly to get is a major constraint. On the
other hand, disease, large number of local breeds, shortage of land
and market constraint, waste disposal are also drawbacks that
influence the dairy productivity [23].
Milk losses from farm to consumption: In dairying postharvest
loss reaches around 40% of produced milk from milking
to consumption. This is mainly due to milking contamination,
long storage time, adulteration, and lack of advanced system for
transportation and distribution of milk [26].
The map of world food program shows 1 in 9 population of
the world around 8.5 million people exposes in poverty and their
house always cloudy in hunger. The food constrain is repetitively
mentioned drawback for the aliveness of global futurity, in 2050 the population augmentation of 9 billion people needs 70% increment of food production which is a strong call for everyone
in contribution for this global issue.
The most important matter that gets more attention today
is significant scarce foods losses before reaching to consumer
through food value chain channels. In East African countries
from food post-harvest losses milk were a major loss; such as in
Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda shows 9.9, 14.2, 17.8, and
23.9 million US dollar losses respectively. This was because of; their
poor market access, inadequate handling practice and shortage
of electric power service which makes milk to form spoilage and
product losses before market. For developing countries due to the
absence of advanced technologies in transportation and market
infrastructure, the more extended the distance exposed for more
milk losses through milk channel and in addition to these farmers
also loss milk due to rejection in collection center by traders and
processors. The farmers consider rejected milk as a lost milk as the
economic value of preparing rejected milk to cheese and butter is
low in comparing to selling milk. Sometimes rejected milk opens
a chance for household consumption and animals which makes
economic value in uncertain. From the total milk produced 9% of
milk lost in the chain and the major factors for such milk loss were
milk collection center long waiting time, lack of milk handling
practice, inappropriate milk carrying tools, type of transportation
used, and ineffective communication with other partners [36].
Financial constraints: The payment system of farmers
used both in cash and credit but they mostly used credit system
and farmers have limited finance and education commonly in
developing countries that constrains them in low technology
acceptance and longtime adaptability [12]. The supply and
demand proportion determines the price of milk but due to sociocultural
factors farmers sell their milk at lower price for neighbors
[12]. The financial service credit facilities are not easily accessible
[6] and due to the sector higher financial problems over 90% of
farmers in dairy sector were didn’t receive credit from formal
credit institutions [15]. The constraint of high requirement of
capital for smallholder dairy producers mostly influence women
farmers [3] and in general dairy sector financial limitation restricts
to achieve their common goals and maintain their production
almost without promotion [15].
Animal health and veterinary service: The Most dairy
problems resulted from both considered and unconsidered
abandoned constraints and which it births other serious influence
in dairy productivity. The factors that come from managements like
housing, feeding and veterinary service causes cows to be offensive,
unhealthy, unwholesome and ended their life productivity
unsuccessfully [15]. Animal health issues are more influencing
constraint for Ethiopian dairy sector due to their extremely poor
feeding practice which decreases fertility rate, diseases resistance
ability and finally increases mortality and morbidity rate [3].
Besides, in tropical areas internal parasites like liver fluke and
round worm and also flies and ticks are commonly existing. Thereof
and other parasites existence is probably due to lack of dairy farm
herd management like feeding method, waste management, calf
feeding and care [12]. The inaccessibility of veterinary service,
transportation difficulties and veterinary professional shortage
stresses dairy sector in funding for loss of animals in diseases.
The outcome of this veterinary low performance comes from
government monopolized service and this is because of the less
attention of livestock sector [4]. The disease and parasite of dairy
cows affects their development depending on their management
status and ecological zones [6]. In contributing for development
of the country universities should built social and technical skills
in research with well-equipped facilities to solve the major dairy
production constraints of extension service and research support
in light of teachers to students. Although Ethiopia has many rivers,
lakes and ocean water sources but due to lack of wisely use of
water resource there is a scarce of water in many rural areas that
depress and expose for disease in dairy farming [12]. In general,
for better dairy productivity an experience of various countries
like India and Kenya shows that private veterinary service is
extremely necessary to serve the need of dairy farms energetically
without any interruption [15].
The institutional boundaries: The households want to
improve availability of service timely in well trained personnel
in the value chain [16] in this way for the advancement of dairy
farming institutions are needed to organize and integrate farmer
training centers facility, milk collection center, milk processing
and marketing facilities, credit institutions, cooperative groups,
research and extension services [12]. The main purpose for
establishment of cooperatives in dairy is to improve (technical
efficiency and bargaining power), reduce transaction cost and to
minimize market risks that farmers face [37]. The organized and
strongly advanced coordination of institutions in the supply chain
increases the business profitability with consistent productivity
[38]. Dairy actors of Dire Dawa dairy industries has a weak linkage
because of unorganized structure of their value chain [39].
There were four most institutional interventions in urban
households; establish new input-output dairy producer led
cooperative, make linkage between brewery industry and flour
factory, improving credit service, and improving AI and veterinary
service. Similarly, the four most interventions for peri-urban
households were; established new input-output dairy producerled-
cooperative, improving credit services, improving artificial
insemination and veterinary services, and improving extension
services. Generally, in both urban and pr-urban areas establishing
new input-output dairy producer-led-cooperative were the first
major intervention [16]. The limited dairy enterprises with the
dominancy of local cows in low milk yield restrains dairy sector
to have higher milk demand and lower milk supply [15]. The dairy
sector cooperatives were very weak to upgrade dairy productivity
[3] and most importantly they lack technical knowledge, marketing
skill, value chain linkage; and are inefficient and ineffective [6].
Generally, the institutional concern major dairying and processing constraints were shortage of processing equipment supply and its high cost, low market access, absence of enough
urban and pre-urban dairy producer led cooperatives, poor
market linkage of producer with value chain actors [16]. So that
to have powerful dairy sector enterprise the governments of
Ethiopia should focus and handle farmers in dairy cooperatives to
have enough information access for nutrition, market, breeding,
hygiene, health, milk handling and transportation; and there must
be a way that facilitate farmers and dairy cooperatives to have a
vertical relationship with extensionists [15].
Breeding and genetics: The crossbreed composition of dairy
cows had 25, 50 and 70 % composition of exotic blood level. Mostly
rural system blood level less than 50% but for urban and periurban
system it reaches 50-75% as the blood level increases from
rural to urban [22]. In peri-urban system major oxen have > 75%
exotic inheritance in which they use for natural mating [40]. The
major restriction of dairy production was primarily low genetic
potential and secondly poor husbandry management practice
[16]. In diary production even though, different farmers have
different breed preference, mostly crossbreed were better due to
high milk yield but unsuccessful in rural production system due to
their weak management with cow’s poor resistance for disease.
On the other hand, in choosing local cows they have a depleted
measure in productivity because of their low milk yield potential
[15] which is a main challenge for the diary sector [3]. Although
there is a potential for increasing indigenous cows productivity
unless lack of management mostly feed insufficiency makes local
cows unrecoverable [3].
The country dairy policy and forthcoming outlooks
The country dairy policy: by definition policy is the
guideline that formulates, facilitates and transforms the dairy
sector to participate dairy actors equally for common benefit in
common standardized regulating system for conducting a positive
working environment [15]. The outcome of today veterinary
low performance comes from government monopolized service
and their less attention of livestock sector. Moreover, there are
administrative, financial and logistical problems in government
for service providers to deliver time sensitive issues for farmers
like Artificial insemination or natural service, vaccination and
deworming; due to this reason, they are limited to serve in some
regions [4]. The country as a whole hasn’t any policy that have
applied for milk quality for safeguarding consumers health; only
13% of milk processing plant practiced milk quality control and
pasteurization [12] and the chain actors have not any chance to
talk each other about their value chain restraint issues as the
dairy sector has not articulated applicable policy in dairy product
marketing, processing and quality assurance at zonal as well as
national level [15]. On the other hand, outside imported milk
share influences the prices of country producers and the country
producer marketing system also impact diary production as
informal system dominates and leads around 88% over formal
market [4]. Thereof all dairy constraints are the result of the dairy
sector policy nonappearance and in which dairy policy increases
uncertainty of future dairy productivity unless the sector policy
stands to organize, guide and control the system. In general, the
nonappearance of Ethiopian dairy sector policy for dairy producer
farmers, processors and other dairy actors Weakens dairy
production with the higher milk demand-supply variation in the
country population [41].
Dairy production forthcoming outlooks: The country dairy
sector today categorized as transition level in shifting way to
market oriented economy; as opened market, participation of the
private sector and advancement of smallholder dairy are the main
features of this phase. The increment of population and expansion
of urbanization stirred and drives the outlook of Ethiopian
forthcoming dairy productivity. In population augmentation, it
is predictable that dairy industry will have a major performance
in distributing milk for children and younger generation. The
Establishment of dairy industry with strong extension service
and actively motivate farmers in dairy productivity is advisable
for diary sector [3]. The country holds diverse topographic and
climatic conditions [4], adequate land resource, favorable climate
with high livestock population, suitable agro ecology, risk free
environment for work, high yielding disease resistant breed, cheap
labor force, and strong support from institutions, universities,
colleges and agricultural extension workers and this all facilities
open an opportunity for smallholder farmer to use (land, labor
and feed source), to generate income and attract foreigners for
investment [3].
The average milk production is significantly increasing
that supports the country economy return [16] and for poverty
alleviation and improvement of nutrition [3]. In the continual
country population augmentation milk demand increases and
it will open more employment opportunity following with the
increment of milk production to satisfy their milk demand [6];
This chance of dairy farming employment opportunities and its
income generation makes the sector more imperative on today
and tomorrow smallholder farmers [8].
Investment prospects: in Ethiopian dairy sector there is a
limited monetary capital, equipment and technology capacity for
small and medium processors. In behind this to increases their
productivity some of them wants a joint venture either with local
private investors or foreigners. The dairy sector most importantly
has open opportunities for investment in feed processing, modern
milk processing supply of inputs for groups of large farmers,
milk testing and other full processing equipment supply and
maintenance, breeding technology and artificial insemination,
packaging and leasing, marketing and other advisory services.
The limited accessibility of milk collection center is the major
constraint for most Ethiopian milk post-harvest loses today
as it has inadequate contact with producers. Because this gap,
the investment opportunities are open in establishment of milk transport distribution facility, cold chains and milk collection center. Furthermore, most private and cooperatives lacks
collection center and even available collection centers are not in
good upright position as the system uses inferior containers and
risky mode of transportation substantial amount of milk spoiled
and losses in transport [3]. This all shows the existence of dairy
sector opportunities for investment.
Conclusion and Recommendation
This paper mainly covers Ethiopian dairy cattle production
systems, production and reproductivity performance, constraints,
policy, forthcoming outlook and other dairy related status of the
country. Dairy production is one of the major sources of population
livelihood for the country which helps them to not fall in poverty.
However, in practice the government of Ethiopia didn’t have
effective and functional policy that can control and lead the dairy
sector in milk quality, dairy product marketing and processing and
their devotion is still unexperienced and clueless.
The empowerment of dairy sector enterprises helps dairying
to be influential and this will occur when the country government
focus and handle farmers in coordinate with dairy cooperatives to
have enough information access for nutrition, market, breeding,
hygiene, health, milk handling and transportation and to join in a
vertical relationship with extensionists and their actors.
The higher coverage of local cows and their poor production
performance influences people milk satisfaction in the increasing
demand of milk and milk products and the country economic
growth. Therefore, facilitate dairying resources for better
management and crossing indigenous cattle to use improved cows
are the best advisable options for the sector. Most importantly, this
government weakness constrains farmers for incapable to access
land for forage production and dairying further expansion. As a
result, the country higher cattle population declined by inadequate
feed availability in restricted land for pasture establishment.
Moreover, dairying in the tropics were influenced by disease and
parasites due to their weak dairy farm herd management. The
inaccessibility to veterinary service, transportation difficulties and
veterinary professional shortage stresses dairy sector in funding
for loss of animals in diseases. The outcome of this veterinary
low performance comes from government monopolized service.
Therefore, generally the availability of favorable policy and strong
extension service is highly imperative for farmers adopting power
of improved dairy cows, dairying performance, accessibility of
resources and for the higher increment of employed workforces.
Recommendations
a) The continuity of dairy production hangs on the hand
of land influences; in this way the government should give
attention for the dairy sector and resolve the dairy farmers land
inaccessibility.
b) It is desirable for governments to build conducive policy
environment that serve equally for investors, country producers
and other actors in milk production; in following this it’s also
advisable for sector governmental extensionists to give a support
for smallholder farmers in filling their financial and skill gap as
less extension service have derived in dairy sector.
c) The seasonal variation of milk marketing affects
farmers in lowering milk price. Therefore, it’s important to have
a contractual agreement with milk collector and processor for
giving guarantee in sustainable marketing for producers.
d) In improving feed shortage of producer farmers work
with extensionists and build solution maker team in awareness
creation for making easy feeds such as crop residue treatment,
urea treatment and other supplementary feeds are strongly
recommended. In addition, planting the mixture of grass legumes
and fodder trees, wisely utilization of crop residues can increase
the chance of farmers to raise dairy production by decreasing feed
constraint.
e) The government to be succeed in the country dairy
production setting motive extension workers with appropriate
salary is primarily worthwhile. In addition to their salary,
extensionists knowledge should be practically measured to be
able to demonstrate farmers particularly in simple feed processing
trails, hygiene (personnel and animals), calf rearing, feeding,
market information, value chain and the like dairying experiences.
f) As experience of India and Kenya private veterinary
service is extremely necessary to serve dairy farms energetically
without any interruption, therefore, there should be a way to
experience other countries dairy experience that will see under
the ground beyond looking country professional’s experience in
media.
g) For using unemployed professions and both genders
in dairy sector; government of Ethiopia should give attention
in extending dairy farming for societal gender issue as dairy
business more dominated by male genders and most importantly
the government also advisable to focus in widening chances of
getting employment opportunities in dairy business for graduated
professions and other unemployed people of the country.
h) In dairy production to exemplify others boldening a
model producer and processor is very important. In some milk
processing enterprises for their milk supplier farmers, they
make easy accessibility of feed in credit basis, training and also,
they build system of payment based on their milk quality that
motivates them to produce in giving much care for milk quality.
This way of controlling milk quality is more advisable without the
affection of farmers in price and their relation will be believable
and consistent.
i) Farmers should train for the importance of milk quality,
controlling methods and build their mind attentively to know
for whom they are working for, as farmers are the most milk
adulterants and they should get quality instruments in reasonable price to ensure milk quality. Consistently there must be appropriate and parallel price in between milk producer farmers, collectors
and dairy processor industries.
j) Finally, and most importantly for the building influential
dairying in the country the government of Ethiopia should
thoughtfully focus and handle all dairy actors to have enough
information access, skill of dairying, access for marketing,
accessibility for dairy inputs, possible support in extensionists and
creating a way to have enough cooperative relationship between
producer farmers and other actors.
Acknowledgments
First of all, I would like to praise and exalt Almighty God for
giving me courage and strength in going to succeed with the people
who have invested their knowledge for my new era of success. I
would like to express my warmest recognition to my supervisor
professor Hou Yong for all his patience help in spending their
precious time to give earnest and regular advice, and secondly for
China Agricultural University and China Government for giving
this chance to study my M.Sc. degree.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
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