Disinfection Techniques for Cryptosporidium
James E Bogan*
Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, Sanford, USA
Submission: August 24, 2018; Published: September 06, 2018
*Corresponding author: James E Bogan, Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, 3755 W. Seminole Blvd., Sanford, FL 32771, Tel: (407) 323-4450; Email: jamesb@centralfloridazoo.org
How to cite this article: James E Bogan. Disinfection Techniques for Cryptosporidium. Dairy and Vet Sci J. 2018; 7(4): 555718. DOI: 10.19080/JDVS.2018.07.555718
Abstract
Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite, is hearty in the environment and resistant to commonly used disinfectants. Additionally, many species of Cryptosporidium are zoonotic. To prevent disease transmission and contamination of the water table, the proper disinfectant must be selected. This review will highlight the proper techniques needed to prevent the spread of disease in a cryptosporidiosis outbreak.
Keywords:Cryptosporidium; cryptosporidiosis; disinfection; hydrogen peroxide; ammonia; steam cleaning; zoonosis; Mammals; Birds; Reptiles; Amphibians; Fish; Chlorine; Zoonotic; Hydrogen
Introduction
Cryptosporidiosis is a disease affecting both humans and animals caused by the protozoan parasite, Cryptosporidium. Thirty species of Cryptosporidium have been described from a wide range of vertebrate hosts including humans, wild and domestic mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibi¬ans, and fish causing asymptomatic or mild-to-severe disease in the host [1,2]. Most species of Cryptosporidium will cause diarrhea by infecting the intestinal tract of the host, but some Cryptosporidium species will infect other organs, such the stomach of snakes and frogs [3,4], the lungs and kidneys of birds [5-7] and the spleen, liver and gills of fish [8]. Cryptosporidium is hearty in the environment and resistant to commonly used disinfectants and most of the species which infect mammals are zoonotic [9].
Some of the commonly used disinfectants ineffective in deactivating Cryptosporidium oocysts include bleach (sodium hypochlorite), chlorine, quaternary ammonium compounds, phenols, and glutaldehyde [10-12]. The inherent resistance of Cryptosporidium oocysts to many disinfectants restricts the choice of disinfectant for cleaning animal enclosures when there is a concern that Cryptosporidium may be present [3,12-15]. Ammonia is effective in eliminating oocyst infectivity after 18 hours contact at room temperature [16,17]. This can be easily achieved by diluting liquid ammonia1:2 or 1:5 with water [16]. Hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 6%, which is relatively non-toxic, is lethal to oocysts after exposure at room temperature for 20 minutes [12,18-20].
Elevated temperatures have also been shown to inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts. The amount of time necessary to inactivate the parasitic cysts depends on the temperature. The oocyst infectivity is neutralized by exposure to moist heat over 70 °C (158 °F) for twenty minutes [12,15,16,21]. If the temperature is elevated to 80 °C (176 °F) oocysts will be inactivated after two minutes [22]. If the temperature is decreased to 65 °C (149 °F), the time necessary to inactivate the oocysts in increased to thirty minutes [23].
Zoonotic Cryptosporidium oocysts can eventually wind up in the water supply used for human consumption. When drinking water is contaminated with Cryptosporidium, the disinfection procedures for many municipal water treatment plants are challenged. Since chlorine and sodium hypochlorite are not effective control measures in preventing the spread of Cryptosporidium, other disinfecting protocols are needed to prevent zoonotic transmission of these oocysts. Some effective water disinfecting techniques include the use of ultraviolet light, ozone, titanium dioxide photo-analysis, and ultrasound [11,24-26]. Interestingly, natural sunlight has been shown to inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts [27]. A recent study demonstrated that eight hours sunlight exposure of potable water in plastic bottles is effective in completely inactivating any contaminating Cryptosporidium oocysts, thus offering an applicable, economical and convenient method for the control of cryptosporidiosis especially in developing countries [24].
Discussion
When dealing with a cryptosporidiosis outbreak in an animal population, the veterinarian must take precautions to prevent the spread of disease within the animal population as well as preventing zoonotic infection. Isolating the infected animals from the remaining population is a must. The provision of separate cleaning equipment for each enclosure decreases the risk of cross-transmission of cryptosporidiosis and of other pathogens [19]. All waste products from mammalian cryptosporidiosis cases should be treated as biohazardous waste to prevent the spread into the ground water
All items associated with the infected animal need to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Any item that is disposable should be discarded. Thorough cleaning with hot, soapy water is necessary prior to the use of a disinfectant. The use of a steam cleaner should be considered, especially if the cleaned items can be brought to 80°C (176 °F) for two minutes. Proper personal protection equipment (PPE) needs to be employed to prevent accidental zoonosis. PPE includes disposable latex or nitrile gloves, eye protection, and a respirator. Using disposable Tyvek® coveralls, or similar product, should also be employed as Cryptosporidium oocysts can attach to fabrics during machine washing [28].
Ammonia is commonly used as a disinfectant during a cryptosporidiosis outbreak, but there are several drawbacks to this method. Ammonia needs to have an 18-hour contact time to inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts. This is often not practical in many situations. Additionally, if the animals are in a confined space, the ammonia gas fumes from this process is irritating to respiratory and ocular membranes and be toxic to animals and humans.
Hydrogen peroxide is a less toxic alternative to ammonia. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide, however, needs to be at least 6% to effectively inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts. This concentration is caustic and corrosive, so proper care needs to be taken when handling this product. The major advantages of using 6% hydrogen peroxide over ammonia are no irritating, toxic fumes and a dramatically shorter contact time of 20 minutes compared to 18 hours for ammonia.
Non-disposable medical equipment used on any Cryptosporidium infected animal needs to be sterilized before use on another animal. Autoclave, ethylene oxide gas, and hydrogen peroxide gas plasma (STERRAD®) are the only methods of sterilization that are effective in inactivating Cryptosporidium spores [12]. Cold sterilization techniques using 2% glutaldehyde have been shown to be ineffective in inactivating Cryptosporidium oocysts [12].
Conclusion
Adoption of a few simple control procedures can limit disease spread during an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. Scrubbing of contaminated surfaces and the prompt removal and appropriate disposal of contaminated wastes will remove reservoirs of parasites thereby reducing the risk of spread of infection. Proper selection of appropriate disinfectants must be made to ensure prevention of disease spread.
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in ESKAPE Bacteria from Animals
This manuscript was prepared and reviewed with the participation of all the authors, who declare that they have no conflict of interest that compromise the validity of the results.
References
- Ryan U, Fayer R, Xiao L (2014) Cryptosporidium species in humans and animals: current understanding and research needs. Parasitol 141(13): 1667-1685.
- Holubová N, Sak B, Horčičková M, Hlásková L, Květoňová D, et al. (2016) Cryptosporidium avium n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in birds. Parasitol Res 115(6): 2243-2251.
- Cranfield MR, Graczyk TK (2006) Cryptosporidiosis. In: Mader DR (Eds.), Reptile Medicine and Surgery (2nd edn), WB Saunders. St. Louis, MO, USA, p. 56-62.
- Pessier AP (2014) Infectious diseases of amphibians: It isn’t just redleg anymore. In: Divers S, Mader DR (eds). Current Therapy in Reptile Medicine and Surgery, Elsevier, St. Louis, MO, USA, pp. 247-254.
- Nakamura K, Abe F (1988) Respiratory (especially pulmonary) and urinary infections of Cryptosporidium in layer chickens. Avian Pathol 17(3): 703-711.
- Curtiss JB, Leone AM, Wellehan Jr JF, Emerson JA, Howerth EW, et al. (2015) Renal and cloacal cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium avian genotype V) in a Major Mitchell’s cockatoo (Lophochroa leadbeateri). J Zoo Wildl Med 46(4): 934-937.
- Baines D, Giles M, Richardson M (2017) Microscopic and molecular tracing of Cryptosporidium oocysts: identifying a possible reservoir of infection in red grouse. Pathogens 6(4): 57-62.
- Yang R, Dorrestein GM, Ryan U (2016) Molecular characterisation of a disseminated Cryptosporidium infection in a koi carp (Cyprinus carpio). Vet Parasitol 226: 53-56.
- Pumipuntu N, Piratae S (2018) Cryptosporidiosis: A zoonotic disease concern. Vet World 11(5): 681-686.
- Venczel LV, Arrowood M, Hurd M, Sobsey MD (1997) Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Clostridium perfringens spores by a mixed-oxidant disinfectant and by free chlorine. Appl Environ Microbiol 63(4): 1598-1601.
- Korich DG, Mead JR, Madore MS, Sinclair NA, Sterling CR (1990) Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl Environ Microbiol 56(5): 1423-1428.
- Barbee SL, Weber DJ, Sobsey MD, Rutala WA (1999) Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity by disinfection and sterilization processes. Gastrointest Endoscop 49(5): 605-611.
- Angus KW, Sherwood D, Hutchinson G, Campbell I (1982) Evaluation of the effect of two aldehyde-based disinfectants on the infectivity of faecal cryptospordia for mice. Res Vet Sci 33(3): 379-381.
- Campbell I, Tzipori S, Hutchison G, Angus KW (1982) Effect of disinfectants on survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Vet Rec 111(18): 414-415.
- Shahiduzzaman M, Dyachenko V, Keidel J, Schmäschke R, Daugschies A (2010) Combination of cell culture and quantitative PCR (cc-qPCR) to assess disinfectants efficacy on Cryptosporidium oocysts under standardized conditions. Vet Parasitol 167(1): 43-49.
- Cranfield MR, Graczyk TK, Wright K, Frye FL, Raphael B, et al. (1999) Roundtable: Cryptosporidiosis. Bull ARAV 9(3): 15-21.
- Fayer R, Graczyk TK, Cranfield MR, Trout JM (1996) Gaseous disinfection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 62(10): 3908-3909.
- Blewett DA (1988) Quantitative techniques in Cryptosporidium research. In: Angus KW, Blewett DA (eds): Cryptosporidiosis. Proc 1st Intrnl Wrkshop. Moredun Res Instit. Edinburgh pp. 107.
- Carmel BP, Groves V (1993) Chronic cryptosporidiosis in Australian elapid snakes: control of an outbreak in a captive colony. Aust Vet J 70(8): 293-295.
- Wade WS, Higgins EL, Arcement L, Connors BF, Duane EG (2015) Beyond Traditional Biosafety. Appl Biosafet 20(2): 110-114.
- Anderson BC (1986) Effect of drying on the infectivity of Cryptosporidialaden calf feces for 3- to 7-day-old mice. Am J Vet Res 47(10): 2272- 2273.
- Travaillé E, La Carbona S, Gargala G, Aubert D, Guyot K, et al. (2016) Development of a qRT-PCR method to assess the viability of Giardia intestinalis cysts, Cryptosporidium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Food Control 59: 359-365.
- Fayer R, Speer CA, Dubey JP (2018) General biology of Cryptosporidium. In: Dubey JP, Speer CA, Fayer R (Eds.), Cryptosporidiosis of Man and Animals, CRC PressBoca Raton, FinLand, p. 1-30.
- Soliman A, El-Adawy A, El-Aal AA, Elmallawany MA, Nahnoush RK, et al. (2018) Usefulness of sunlight and artificial UV radiation versus chlorine for the inactivation of Cryptosporidium oocysts: An in vivo animal study. Open Access Macedon J Med Sci p. 6.
- Galeano LA, Guerrero Flórez M, Sánchez CA, Gil A, Vicente MÁ (2017) Disinfection by chemical oxidation methods. In: Gil A, Galeano L, Vicente M (Eds.), Applications of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) in Drinking Water Treatment. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Springer International, Cham, Switzerland 67: 1-39.
- Abeledo-Lameiro MJ, Ares-Mazás E, Goméz-Couso H (2018) Use of ultrasound irradiation to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 48: 118-126.
- McGuigan KG, Méndez‐Hermida F, Castro‐Hermida JA, Ares‐Mazás E, Kehoe SC, et al. (2006) Batch solar disinfection inactivates oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum and cysts of Giardia muris in drinking water. J Appl Microbiol 101(2): 453-463.
- o’Toole J, Sinclair M, Leder K (2009) Transfer rates of enteric microorganisms in recycled water during machine clothes washing. Appl Environ Microbiol 75(5): 1256-1263.