Introduction

Background

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) industry is one of the most significant agricultural sectors in the tropics, making vital contributions to national economies, rural livelihoods, and global food supply chains. Indonesia and Malaysia collectively account for approximately 85% of global palm oil production, with the commodity supporting over four million direct jobs and generating substantial export revenues. Oil palm’s superior yield efficiency-producing more oil per hectare than any other oilseed crop-positions it as an indispensable component of global food security and bioenergy strategies [1].

However, the rapid expansion of oil palm monocultures across tropical regions has attracted international scrutiny regarding their environmental footprint. Conversion of forests and peatlands to plantation estates has been associated with biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, and greenhouse gas emissions. While these concerns are legitimate, it is important to recognize that the oil palm sector has made significant strides in sustainability, with certification schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) and the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) driving improvements in environmental and social practices. As of 2023, RSPO certification has protected over 466,600 hectares of valuable HCV and High Carbon Stock forests [2].

Against this backdrop, the concept of transforming oil palm plantations from monoculture production systems into multifunctional eco-tourism landscapes has emerged as an innovative sustainability pathway. This transformation envisions oil palm estates as dynamic landscapes that simultaneously sustain commodity production, restore ecological functions through agroforestry, protect biodiversity in HCV areas, and generate alternative income streams through nature-based tourism. Such a paradigm shift aligns with the growing global emphasis on landscape approaches that reconcile agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses within integrated spatial frameworks [3].

Urgency of the study

The urgency of exploring this transformation is multidimensional. Ecologically, even well-managed oil palm monocultures harbor significantly lower biodiversity compared to native forests, necessitating complementary conservation strategies within plantation landscapes. The strategic management of HCV areas, riparian zones, and wildlife corridors within plantations can substantially enhance landscape-level biodiversity outcomes. Agroforestry, which integrates tree species within oil palm stands, offers a proven mechanism to improve ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, soil health, and microclimate regulation [4].

Socioeconomically, rural communities dependent on oil palm cultivation face vulnerabilities stemming from commodity price volatility, aging plantations, and limited options for income diversification. Eco-tourism represents a promising avenue for livelihood diversification, particularly in regions endowed with natural beauty and cultural heritage. Community-based ecotourism models have demonstrated success in enhancing local incomes, fostering entrepreneurship, and promoting environmental stewardship across tropical developing countries [5].

From a policy standpoint, the European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR), which sets a deforestation cut-off date of December 31, 2020, has intensified pressure on palm oil producers to demonstrate deforestation-free and sustainabilitycompliant supply chains. This regulatory environment creates both challenges and opportunities, incentivizing producers to adopt landscape management practices that visibly integrate conservation and sustainability objectives. Simultaneously, the alignment with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 8 (Decent Work), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land), provides a compelling rationale for transformative approaches [6,7].

Research objectives and questions

This qualitative literature review aims to explore how oil palm plantations can be transformed, conceptually and practically, into eco-tourism landscapes through the dual strategies of agroforestry integration and HCV area protection. The specific research questions are:
i. How can agroforestry practices facilitate the ecological transformation of oil palm monocultures into landscapes suitable for eco-tourism?
ii. In what ways can HCV area protection serve as a foundational component for conservation-based tourism within oil palm landscapes?
iii. What governance, policy, and institutional frameworks enable or hinder this transformation?
iv. What are the socioeconomic implications, including community benefits and livelihood diversification outcomes, of this landscape transformation?

This review contributes to the academic literature by providing an integrative conceptual synthesis that bridges three traditionally separate research domains-ecotourism, agroforestry, and HCV conservation-within the specific context of oil palm landscapes [8].

Literature Review

Ecotourism: concepts, principles, and applications in agricultural landscapes

Ecotourism is defined as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education. The concept has evolved from purely nature-based tourism to encompass agricultural settings, giving rise to Agri-ecotourism models that leverage farm landscapes as educational and recreational platforms. In the context of tropical plantation crops, ecotourism offers a means to diversify economic activities while promoting environmental awareness and cultural preservation [9].

The development of community-based ecotourism (CBET) in developing countries has gained substantial research attention. A revised sustainable livelihood framework incorporating sociocultural capital for CBET development has been proposed, emphasizing that community empowerment and equitable benefit sharing are critical success factors. In plantation settings specifically, ecotourism can serve as a platform for learning about sustainability, connecting visitors to environmental principles through experiential interactions within managed agricultural landscapes. Malaysia’s oil palm ecotourism model, for instance, envisions plantations as dynamic educational environments where students, communities, and consumers engage firsthand with sustainable agricultural practices [5].

Agroforestry in oil palm landscapes

Agroforestry-the intentional integration of trees with crops and/or livestock-represents one of the most promising strategies for enhancing the ecological value of oil palm landscapes. Oil palm agroforestry systems encompass various configurations, including Agri silviculture (combining oil palm with timber or fruit trees), alley cropping, and the establishment of tree islands or biodiversity enrichment plantings within plantation matrices [10].

The ecological benefits of oil palm agroforestry are welldocumented. Research from Sumatra demonstrates that agroforestry systems significantly enhance biodiversity, with tree diversification supporting a greater abundance and diversity of bird species, arthropods, and understory vegetation than in monoculture stands. A study in the Harapan Rainforest landscape found that oil palm agroforestry could improve ecological conditions by restoring habitat complexity and supporting species movement across fragmented landscapes. Oil palm agroforestry has also been shown to enhance carbon sequestration, with agroforestry plots storing significantly more aboveground and belowground carbon than conventional monoculture blocks [11].

Beyond its ecological benefits, agroforestry provides substantial socioeconomic benefits. Diversified cropping systems buffer smallholder farmers against price volatility by generating supplementary income from fruit, timber, and non-timber forest products. In Brazil’s Tomé-Açu region, oil palm agroforestry has demonstrated that integrating cocoa, pepper, and native trees can create productive and environmentally sustainable farming systems. Research synthesized evidence demonstrating that agroforestry within oil palm landscapes improves microclimates, diversifies income sources, and strengthens community governance in tourism ventures [10].

High conservation value (HCV) in oil palm plantations

The HCV framework, widely adopted by the RSPO and other certification bodies, identifies six categories of conservation value: HCV 1 (concentrations of biodiversity), HCV 2 (landscapelevel ecosystems), HCV 3 (rare or threatened ecosystems), HCV 4 (critical ecosystem services), HCV 5 (community livelihood needs), and HCV 6 (cultural values). Oil palm companies seeking RSPO certification are required to identify, manage, and monitor HCV areas within their concessions [12].

Research on HCV management in oil palm landscapes reveals both achievements and persistent challenges. Nasution et al. (2024) analyzed vegetation and plant diversity in HCV areas of oil palm plantations in Central Kalimantan, identifying 25 plant species across 17 families and a total of 355 individual plants, although the overall diversity index remained in the low category. A more comprehensive study of plant diversity in Gorontalo, Indonesia, identified 111 species across HCV forest and plantation sites, including eight Sulawesi endemics and 64 medicinal species, underscoring the conservation value of remnant habitats within monoculture landscapes [13].

Judijanto et al. (2024) demonstrated that applying adaptive management principles in HCV areas of oil palm plantations in Seruyan District, Central Kalimantan, achieved a 75% reduction in HCV area encroachment, confirming that proactive management can effectively maintain conservation values within production landscapes. The RSPO-HCVN partnership, formalized through a 2024 Memorandum of Understanding, further strengthens the institutional framework for embedding HCV protections within sustainable palm oil standards [13].

However, corporate commitments to biodiversity protection remain difficult to achieve due to limited knowledge of effective conservation strategies and insufficient attention to social challenges. Challenges include variability in the quality of HCV assessments across companies, inadequate monitoring capacity, and the need for stronger community engagement in conservation governance [11].

Theoretical frameworks

This review draws upon three interconnected theoretical frameworks. First, the Sustainable Livelihood Framework provides a lens for understanding how ecotourism and agroforestry jointly contribute to livelihood diversification by expanding the asset base (natural, human, social, financial, and physical capitals) available to rural communities. Second, the Landscape Approach, which emphasizes integrated management of land and resources across spatial scales, offers conceptual grounding for reconciling agricultural production, conservation, and tourism within a single landscape unit. Third, Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and green economy concepts provide the economic rationale for compensating conservation actions, linking environmental stewardship with financial sustainability [14].

Methodology

Research design: qualitative literature review

This study adopts a qualitative (narrative) literature review approach, which differs from systematic literature reviews (SLRs) in its flexibility, interpretive depth, and capacity for conceptual synthesis. Narrative reviews are particularly appropriate when the research objective is to provide a readable, thoughtful, and practical synthesis of a topic rather than to answer a highly focused clinical question. A well-conducted narrative review allows authors to advance new ideas while describing and interpreting literature in the field, making them suitable for emerging and interdisciplinary research domains [15,16].

The rationale for choosing a narrative review over a systematic review lies in the interdisciplinary and exploratory nature of this study, which spans three distinct but intersecting fields-ecotourism, agroforestry, and HCV conservation-within the specific context of oil palm landscapes. A systematic review’s rigid methodological protocol, while appropriate for narrowly defined research questions, would be less suitable for the broad conceptual integration sought in this paper [17].

Data collection

Literature was searched across multiple academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Search terms included combinations of keywords such as “oil palm agroforestry,” “ecotourism plantation,” “High Conservation Value oil palm,” “biodiversity conservation palm oil,” “community-based ecotourism tropical,” and “landscape approach palm oil.” Additional sources were identified through citation tracking and scanning of reference lists in key articles.

Inclusion criteria comprised: (a) peer-reviewed journal articles and credible institutional reports published since 2020; (b) Indonesian or English-language publications; (c) thematic relevance to at least one of the three core domains (ecotourism, agroforestry, or HCV conservation) within oil palm or comparable tropical plantation contexts. Exclusion criteria included nonpeer- reviewed opinion pieces, publications outside the specified timeframe, and studies focused exclusively on non-tropical agricultural systems without transferable relevance.

Data analysis

Following the principles outlined by Sukhera, the analysis proceeded through iterative cycles of reading, coding, and theme development. Initial open coding identified recurring concepts, which were subsequently organized into thematic categories aligned with the research questions. The five foundational elements of narrative review rigor-clear research question framing, transparent documentation of search strategies, justification of inclusion criteria, reflexivity and saturation statements, and detailed descriptions of analyses-were systematically addressed [15].

Thematic synthesis was employed to identify patterns, convergences, and tensions across the reviewed literature. Findings were organized into four major themes: ecological restoration, HCV protection, ecotourism development models, and governance frameworks. The positive and constructive orientation of the analysis reflects the aim of identifying viable pathways for transformation rather than cataloguing problems.

Result

Theme 1: Ecological restoration through agroforestry in oil palm landscapes Biodiversity enhancement through tree diversification

The literature consistently demonstrates that incorporating tree diversity within oil palm landscapes yields significant biodiversity gains. It has been found that understory vegetation in oil palm plantations supports more abundant and diverse butterfly communities, particularly when non-crop vegetation is maintained. In Papua’s oil palm landscape, substantial diurnal bird diversity has been recorded, and their ecological roles in pest control and pollination have been documented, confirming that biodiversity within plantations can deliver functional ecosystem services [18,19].

Agroforestry enrichment experiments in Sumatra have shown that tree performance in biodiversity-enriched oil palm plots is promising, with native species establishing successfully alongside oil palms when appropriate management practices are applied. The integration of fruit trees, timber species, and nitrogen-fixing trees creates structural complexity that mimics natural forest habitats and provides resources for a wider range of taxa [20-22].

Carbon sequestration and microclimate improvement

Oil palm agroforestry systems exhibit greater carbon storage capacity than monocultures. Research indicates that agroforestry plots can store significantly more carbon in aboveground biomass due to additional tree canopy layers. It has been documented that agrosilviculture and agroforestry systems provide carbon sequestration benefits, with multi-strata tree arrangements substantially increasing total ecosystem carbon relative to singlespecies stands [23].

Microclimate improvements associated with agroforestry include reduced soil surface temperatures, increased canopy relative humidity, and enhanced water-retention capacity. These microclimatic benefits not only support biodiversity but also create more comfortable environments for ecotourism activities, such as walking trails, birdwatching, and nature photography [24].

Soil health rehabilitation

Regenerative agriculture pilots in Indonesia’s oil palm smallholdings have shown encouraging results in improving soil health. In Central Kalimantan, a regenerative agriculture program involving 96 farmers demonstrated increases in soil organic matter content, enhanced soil biological health, and signs of more active earthworm and beneficial bacterial populations. These findings suggest that combining agroforestry with regenerative practices can reverse soil degradation patterns associated with intensive monoculture management, building a healthier landscape foundation for eco-tourism destinations [25].

Theme 2: HCV protection as a foundation for ecotourism landscape HCV areas as biodiversity hotspots and tourism assets

HCV areas within oil palm plantations serve as refugia for species that cannot persist in monoculture environments. Research from Central Kalimantan documented 25 plant species across HCV areas, including species with high ethnobotanical value. In Gorontalo, forest plots within the plantation matrix supported 79 species compared to 56 in plantation areas, including endemic and IUCN-listed species. These findings indicate that HCV areas, though embedded within production landscapes, retain significant conservation value that can be leveraged as ecotourism attractions [26,27].

The tourism potential of HCV areas is considerable [28,29]. Wildlife observation opportunities, botanical diversity, and intact riparian ecosystems within plantation concessions can serve as the basis for specialized nature tourism products. It has been shown that successful HCV management, including a 75% reduction in area encroachment, creates conditions in which natural vegetation recovers, and wildlife populations stabilizeessential prerequisites for nature-based tourism.

Wildlife corridors and landscape connectivity

The establishment of wildlife corridors within oil palm landscapes represents a critical strategy for both biodiversity conservation and eco-tourism development. In Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, conservation efforts have converted former oil palm plantations into rainforest corridors connecting the Tabin and Kulamba Wildlife Reserves, with approximately 8,000 native trees planted on 50 hectares. This corridor restoration enables the movement of endangered species, including Bornean pygmy elephants and proboscis monkeys, creating high-value wildlife tourism opportunities [30-32].

Sabah Softwoods Berhad’s experience demonstrates that allocating land for wildlife corridors can yield economic cobenefits: after establishing a 1,067-hectare corridor, crop damage caused by elephants declined by over 90%, from RM500,000 annually to approximately RM5,000. This evidence challenges the assumption that conservation within plantations necessarily conflicts with profitability and supports the business case for landscape-level conservation investments [33-35].

Challenges in HCV management and monitoring

Despite these promising developments, HCV management remains a persistent challenge. Surveys and interviews with plantation managers from 12 palm oil companies in Malaysia and Indonesia revealed difficulties, including limited capacity for biodiversity monitoring, unclear metrics for measuring conservation success, and inadequate community engagement. The need for standardized biodiversity metrics and guidance on data analysis is a key recommendation to improve HCV management outcomes [36-38]. naturebasedsolutionsinitiative+1 Financial constraints also pose barriers, particularly for smallholders who lack the resources to conduct formal HCV assessments. The RSPO’s Research Agenda 2025 highlights the need for simplified and cost-effective HCV monitoring approaches suitable for smallscale operations [39].

Theme 3: Eco-tourism development in transformed oil palm landscapes Models of plantation-based ecotourism

The literature identifies several ecotourism models applicable to transformed oil palm landscapes. It has been synthesized that agroforestry-based oil palm systems can serve as viable ecotourism destinations, offering educational tours, biodiversity observation, and experiential farm activities. In Malaysia, a conceptual model proposes three strategic phases for oil palm ecotourism development: (1) policy alignment, stakeholder engagement, and site readiness; (2) sustainable land management and ecotourism implementation; and (3) certification, monetization, and global positioning [3].

It has been demonstrated the success of agroforestry-based eco-tourism in Indonesia’s Batur UNESCO Global Geopark in Bali, where integration of conservation, agriculture, and tourism generated economic, environmental, and climate resilience benefits. The agri-ecotourism model developed in Tigbauan, Philippines, further illustrates how organic farming, community involvement, and eco-friendly infrastructure can be combined to create sustainable tourism destinations [40].

Community participation and benefit sharing

Meaningful community participation is consistently identified as a critical success factor for plantation-based ecotourism. Community-based ecotourism models that incorporate local governance structures, equitable benefit-sharing, and capacity building have demonstrated superior sustainability outcomes compared to externally imposed tourism ventures [34,41,42].

It has been documented that sustainable palm oil initiatives that involve inclusive business models and multi-stakeholder collaboration have improved smallholder incomes, reduced environmental impacts, and strengthened social capital. The Creating Shared Value (CSV) framework, applied in the palm oil sector, offers a strategic pathway to align corporate tourism investments with community development outcomes, ensuring that the economic value generated through ecotourism is equitably distributed [1].

Environmental education and sustainability learning

Eco-tourism within transformed oil palm landscapes serves a dual purpose: generating income and fostering environmental awareness. Oil palm ecotourism can provide interactive experiences connecting visitors to sustainability principles, including biodiversity appreciation, responsible consumption, and climate-conscious agriculture. This sustainability learning function is particularly valuable for youth engagement, with plantation-based educational programs offering hands-on exposure to agroforestry practices, wildlife conservation, and ecosystem management [7,43].

Environmental education programs integrated into ecotourism sites have been shown to enhance participants’ environmental knowledge and pro-conservation attitudes significantly. By positioning transformed plantations as living laboratories for sustainability, the oil palm sector can contribute to broader societal shifts toward environmental responsibility [44,45].

Theme 4: Governance, policy, and institutional frameworks RSPO, ISPO, and voluntary sustainability standards

Sustainability certification schemes provide the institutional backbone for landscape transformation. RSPO certification, which requires HCV identification, management, and monitoring, has created measurable conservation outcomes, with certified areas exhibiting lower deforestation rates than uncertified regions. The 2024 RSPO Standards reinforce the use of the Integrated HCV-HCS approach as the primary mechanism for ecosystem protection within palm oil landscapes [39].

Indonesia’s ISPO certification, made mandatory for all oil palm growers, including smallholders, establishes minimum sustainability criteria aligned with national regulations. Research indicates that ISPO-certified smallholders achieve 82% higher land productivity than conventional farmers, demonstrating that certification compliance and productivity gains are mutually reinforcing. However, independent smallholder certification rates remain low, with fewer than 15% certified, underscoring the need for accelerated support mechanisms [46-49].

EU Deforestation regulation and international regulatory pressure

The EUDR represents a transformative shift from voluntary sustainability standards to mandatory legal requirements for products linked to deforestation. Under the regulation, palm oil entering the EU market must be traceable to its exact cultivation site and demonstrated to be deforestation-free relative to the December 31, 2020, cutoff date. Companies that fail to comply face penalties of up to 4% of their total EU turnover [50-52].

While the EUDR creates compliance challenges, particularly for smallholders with limited traceability infrastructure, it also incentivizes the adoption of landscape management practices that visibly integrate conservation objectives. Producers who can demonstrate not only deforestation-free sourcing but also positive conservation outcomes-such as HCV protection and agroforestry integration-may gain competitive advantages in increasingly sustainability-conscious markets [53-55].

multi-stakeholder governance and landscape approaches

Effective landscape transformation requires coordinated governance involving governments, companies, NGOs, smallholder organizations, and research institutions. Research on landscape approaches demonstrates that longer-term, multisectoral initiatives involving diverse stakeholders from early design stages produce better conservation and development outcomes. However, governance fragmentation, conflicting interests, and financial instability remain significant obstacles. Research [49,56- 58].

It has been documented the structural challenges facing independent smallholders in participating in certified palm oil markets, including uneven bargaining power, limited access to institutional support, and information asymmetries. Addressing these governance gaps requires strengthened cooperation, mainstreamed biodiversity considerations across policy sectors, and diversified funding sources [59,60-62].

Discussion and Analysis

Synthesis: integrating agroforestry, HCV protection, and ecotourism Conceptual integration of the three pillars

The review reveals that agroforestry, HCV protection, and ecotourism function as synergistic components of a multifunctional landscape model. Agroforestry provides the ecological foundation by enhancing biodiversity, sequestering carbon, and creating aesthetically diverse environments. HCV areas serve as conservation anchors that maintain landscape-level ecological integrity and provide unique tourism assets, including intact habitats and wildlife populations. Ecotourism generates the economic returns and social incentives that sustain conservation investments and diversify rural livelihoods [13].

This three-pillar model aligns with the landscape multifunctionality concept, which emphasizes the simultaneous delivery of multiple ecosystem services-provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting-within integrated land management frameworks. By reconceptualizing oil palm landscapes as multifunctional systems rather than as single-commodity production zones, stakeholders can unlock opportunities to create value that benefits both nature and people [1].

Synergies and co-benefits

The synergistic relationships among the three pillars generate compounding positive outcomes. Agroforestry increases biodiversity within the plantation matrix, thereby enhancing wildlife observation and botanical diversity in HCV areas and increasing the attractiveness of eco-tourism. Tourism revenues provide financial resources for continued agroforestry investment and HCV management, creating a positive feedback loop. Community engagement in ecotourism activities strengthens local stewardship motivations, reducing encroachment pressures on HCV areas [4].

Economic co-benefits include income diversification for plantation operators and surrounding communities, reduced dependence on palm oil commodity prices, and potential price premiums for sustainability-certified products. Environmental co-benefits encompass enhanced ecosystem resilience, improved climate regulation, and strengthened ecological connectivity across landscapes [61].

Trade-offs and tensions

Despite these synergies, trade-offs exist that must be acknowledged and managed. Short-term productivity reductions may occur when converting monoculture areas to agroforestry systems, particularly during establishment phases when tree crops have not yet reached productive maturity [62]. The allocation of land for HCV protection and wildlife corridors represents an opportunity cost in terms of foregone palm oil production. However, evidence from Sabah suggests the net economic impact may be neutral or positive when reduced crop damage and ecosystem service values are accounted for [63].

Market challenges also present tensions. While eco-tourism demand is growing, many oil palm regions lack the tourism infrastructure, marketing capacity, and visitor access necessary to support viable tourism enterprises. Bridging this gap requires targeted infrastructure investment, human capital development, and market linkage support from governments and development partners [64-67].

Critical Analysis of enabling conditions and barriers Enabling conditions

Several factors enable successful landscape transformation. Supportive policy frameworks-including the integration of HCV data into spatial planning, fiscal incentives for agroforestry adoption, and streamlined ecotourism licensing-create an enabling environment for transformation. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) mechanisms offer financial instruments to compensate for conservation actions, with research demonstrating that welldesigned PES programs can significantly reduce deforestation and improve cost-effectiveness [14].

Access to green financing, including climate funds, impact investments, and sustainability-linked loans, provides critical capital for transformation investments. Knowledge transfer through extension services, farmer field schools, and research partnerships ensures that technical know-how reaches practitioners on the ground [68,69].

Barriers and constraints

Persistent barriers include institutional fragmentation among government agencies responsible for agriculture, forestry, conservation, and tourism, hindering integrated landscape planning. Smallholder capacity constraints-limited education, financial resources, and organizational capacity-restrict participation in both certification schemes and ecotourism ventures. High upfront investment costs for agroforestry establishment, HCV management infrastructure, and tourism facilities deter adoption, particularly among resource-constrained actors [1].

Market uncertainty regarding ecotourism demand, combined with the long-time horizons required for agroforestry systems to reach maturity, creates investment risk that may discourage early adopters. Addressing these barriers requires bundled support packages that combine technical assistance, financial subsidies, land tenure security, and market access support [1,70].

Lessons from case studies

International case studies provide valuable lessons for landscape transformation. In Borneo, the Rhino and Forest Fund’s initiative to convert oil palm plantations into rainforest corridors demonstrates the feasibility and conservation value of plantation-to-forest restoration, with 8,000 native trees planted on former plantation land connecting protected areas. In Brazil, the Tomé-Açu community’s oil palm agroforestry system has been recognized as a model of sustainable tropical agriculture, integrating oil palm with cocoa, açaí, and native trees to create a productive, biodiverse farming system [71,72].

Indonesia’s regenerative agriculture pilot in North Sumatra, involving 96 smallholders across four villages, provides evidence that regenerative practices, integrated with agroforestry principles, can improve soil health, reduce reliance on chemical inputs, and enhance harvest consistency in oil palm systems. These case studies collectively suggest that transformation is technically feasible and can generate meaningful ecological and economic outcomes when supported by appropriate institutional arrangements [24].

Toward a transformative model Proposed framework for transformation

Based on the synthesized evidence, this review proposes a three-phase transformation framework.
Phase 1: Readiness and Assessment involve conducting HCV and land-suitability assessments, engaging stakeholders through participatory planning processes, and developing landscapetransformation master plans that delineate production zones, conservation areas, and tourism-development sites [73].
Phase 2: Implementation and Integration encompass the establishment of agroforestry systems within production areas, the strengthening of HCV management and monitoring protocols, the development of ecotourism infrastructure and programs, and the building of community capacity for tourism enterprise management [8].
Phase 3: Certification, Monetization, and Scaling focus on achieving sustainability certification (RSPO, ISPO) for the transformed landscape, developing market linkages for ecotourism products and services, establishing PES mechanisms to generate ongoing revenue for conservation, and scaling successful models across additional landscapes [14].

Alignment with SDGs and Global sustainability agendas

The proposed transformation model aligns with multiple SDGs. SDG 1 (No Poverty) is addressed through livelihood diversification and income enhancement from ecotourism and diversified agroforestry products. SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) is supported by the creation of new employment opportunities in tourism and landscape management. SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) is advanced by promoting sustainably produced palm oil and environmentally conscious tourism practices. SDG 13 (Climate Action) benefits from enhanced carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems. SDG 15 (Life on Land) is directly supported through HCV protection, biodiversity conservation, and habitat restoration within the oil palm landscape [7,74].

Conclusion

Substantive conclusion

This qualitative literature review demonstrates that the transformation of oil palm plantations into eco-tourism landscapes through agroforestry integration and HCV protection is conceptually sound and supported by a growing body of empirical evidence. The three-pillar model-combining agroforestry’s ecological restoration functions, HCV areas’ anchoring role in conservation, and ecotourism’s economic and educational contributions-offers a viable pathway to reconcile production, conservation, and livelihood objectives within oil palm landscapes.

Key findings indicate that agroforestry within oil palm systems significantly enhances biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and soil health while creating environments conducive to naturebased tourism. HCV areas, when effectively managed, serve as biodiversity reservoirs and tourism assets that justify their protection from both economic and ecological standpoints. Community-based ecotourism models offer promising pathways for livelihood diversification, particularly when supported by equitable benefit-sharing arrangements and capacity-building.

This review acknowledges its limitations. As a narrative rather than a systematic review, it does not claim comprehensive coverage of all relevant literature and acknowledges the inherent selection bias of the narrative approach. The proposed transformation framework requires empirical validation through longitudinal field studies and pilot implementations.

Policy recommendations

Based on the synthesized evidence, the following policy recommendations are offered:
i. National and subnational governments should integrate HCV spatial data into formal land-use planning instruments, provide fiscal incentives for agroforestry adoption within oil palm landscapes, and streamline ecotourism licensing and regulation for plantation-based tourism ventures.
ii. Industry actors should adopt agroforestry as a standard landscape management practice, invest in HCV management capacity, and explore ecotourism as a viable business diversification strategy aligned with sustainability certification requirements.
iii. Smallholder support programs should bundle technical training on agroforestry practices, financial assistance for certification costs, land tenure security support, and market access facilitation to enable inclusive participation in landscape transformation.
iv. International development partners should support PES mechanism development, green financing access, and knowledge exchange platforms to accelerate the scaling of successful transformation models across producing regions.

Directions for future research

Future research should prioritize empirical longitudinal studies assessing the long-term ecological, economic, and social outcomes of plantation-to-ecotourism transformation. Comparative analyses across different agro-ecological zones and institutional contexts would help identify context-specific success factors and constraints. Development of standardized indicators for measuring transformation success-encompassing biodiversity metrics, livelihood outcomes, and tourism sustainability-would support evidence-based adaptive management. Interdisciplinary research integrating ecological science, tourism studies, agricultural economics, and governance analysis is essential for advancing this emerging field.

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