Abstract

The Shroud Body Image is certainly produced by corpse-linen interaction. So, there should be one or more sources present that provide the energy needed to obtain the above Image. Logical research leads us to conclude that the external sources of energy in an ancient tomb are absent. The only source present is that of the corpse due to its thermal state. In fact, the temperature of a body postmortem can overcome also 41°C which certainly exceeds the temperature of burial linen. This different temperature between body and burial linen will allow a continuous transfer of thermal energy from the corpse to the linen cloth until the state of thermal equilibrium is reached. This, the only energy present, will necessarily be the one that will give rise to the Body Image that appears on the Shroud. This source is capable of providing a small amount of energy that is not sufficient to generate a deterministic process, but it is the right one to trigger a stochastic process. The result of this last process is latent, with timescales ranging from years to decades. Furthermore, since it is a probabilistic process, it could explain the optical density distribution of the fibrils. In fact, in the no-image region all the fibril have the same optical density value that is the one of background coloration (due to interaction with electromagnetic radiation), while in the image region there are fibrils with the above coloration mixed with other fibrils all with the same, higher, optical density value. This suggests a probabilistic process. The Shroud of Turin, in its apparent simplicity (a linen cloth with traces, stains, and images) is proving to be an archaeological find of great complexity, pushing scholars to formulate even the most bizarre hypotheses.

Keywords:Shroud of Turin, Body Image Formation, Tomb of Nazarene, Energy Source, Thermal Energy, Stochastics Effects, Deterministics Effects

Introduction

The archaeological find known as “Shroud of Turin” has been studied for several decades since May 1898. Unfortunately, it’s still unclear whether it’s the result of a miracle, a natural event or the product of a forger. We observe that each of these three possibilities has a following of scientists, researchers and scholars, as well as many ordinary people. However, the hypotheses of fake and Miracle were and are the most followed. Furthermore, there is uncertainty about the age of the find. These last two expected results often lead to a clash, rather than a comparison of ideas. We have to take into account the ever-present conflict of interest when studying a relic, a conflict so intense that it leads authoritative scholars to deny laws, concepts and logic [1]. Here, an article published from one of the involved parties is followed by another article that contradicts or refutes the first. In other words the first article must be rejected. We add that there is no hope of a serious comparison that is within the capabilities of these scientists. It is a war without winners and losers that will spread over time; it is not the search for truth. Each side defends its own ideas and positions reached in verbal clashes and neither is willing to give anything up.

Let us remember that the Shroud of Turin is an ancient linen cloth (Linum usitatissimum) with traces of cotton (Gossypium herbaceum). The object shows the frontal and dorsal faint images, arranged forehead versus nape, of a man who has undergone a violent flagellation of more than 100 strokes of a Roman scourge (flagrum) and crucifixion. Furthermore, there are diamond-shaped imprints distributed symmetrically on the cloth and dark traces (two) of burnt linen that run longitudinally across the linen cloth. These last tracks (“water marks” and “burned and scorched areas”) were easy to understand. Indeed, they were due to the 1532 Chambery fire and extinguishing them with water. Unfortunately, some parts of the Shroud were irremediably destroyed. However, the Body Image is due to distribution of yellowed fibrils. In no-image region the fibrils have all the same optical density value for the natural interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Diversely, in the Image region there are fibrils with background coloration mixed with others fibrils all with a same value of optical density greater than that of the background. Thus, it is the density of yellowed fibrils that yields the Image [2,3].

From the Blood Image, we know it is made of whole blood (Blood and Serum). The central part of these stains shows the presence of Hemoglobin; all around, the linen fibrils are yellowish with the presence of Albumin. The central part of the bloodstains is the corpuscular part of the Blood, while the surrounding area is Serum Albumin. These are therefore contact stains: they mean that the Shroud enveloped a wounded human body. This is an extraordinary result because it does not support the hypothesis of a forgery. We also recall the presence of bile pigments, consistent with flagellation and crucifixion. Unfortunately, we know little about the formation of the Body Image. His formation and the age of the linen must be resolved to write the word “End.” This archaeological find, when appeared in France (around the mid- 14th century), generated a conflict of interest: for some, the strong correspondence between the evangelical description of the Passion of Jesus Christ and the image appearing on the linen are the proof that is the image of the Nazarene on His burial linen [4]. For others, it was a medieval forgery because at that time Europe was full of false relics, partly brought by the Crusaders and partly produced in Europe itself. As time has passed, these ideas have not changed. In fact, we would say they have crystallized in the minds of investigators. Today, the conflict develops exactly as it did in the Middle Ages: a piece of writing, data, or result that comes from one side is quickly rejected by the other side, and vice versa. All relics, without exception, are the source of many clashes between Christians of the Roman Catholic Church and others. Among the latter there are atheists, believers of other religions, including some Christians, and many others out of personal antipathy toward certain manifestations of the Church. Unfortunately this state of affairs it is meant to last over time

Considerations on some Formation Mechanisms

We don’t believe the medieval forgery hypothesis. All attempts to prove the above hypothesis have obtained at most macroscopic matches, never microscopic ones [5-8]. There are many reasons for this. We’ll mention just one: “the formation of the Blood Image that preceded the one of the Body Image”. In fact, on a linen cloth measuring approximately 5 m2, the forger would have formed the Blood prints first, followed by the Body prints. This is impossible; it would be correct to have the Body Image first and then place the bloodstains. The experiment, that allows us to affirm what is written above, has been performed in Torino by STURP team: some blood-covered fibrils and others covered in serum were removed from the Shroud, completely cleaned, and observed under the microscope. Their optical density was equal to that of the fibrils present in the no-image region (background color). This is the confirmation that the Blood preceded the Body on the Shroud. Furthermore, spectroscopy showed that there is no image beneath the serum. Therefore, we discarded the hypothesis of a medieval forgery.

Recently, there has been a revival of bas-relief; a hypothesis that has always been ruled out. However, let’s remember that this mechanism is capable of obtaining images that reproduce high resolution, appropriate chemistry, and 3D properties. However, there are other properties that the bas-relief will never be able to satisfy. In fact the linen sample should be stained of blood before be placed on the hot bas-relief and the heat would damage it. The mechanism cannot guarantee the depth of the Image. There is the impossibility of obtaining, for the entire Shroud, fibrils with only two optical density values: the background one and the other due to the corpse-burial linen interaction. Furthermore, we remember that the Shroud Image is a latent Image.

The radiative one is another hypothesis which must be considered as a miraculous event because it is triggered by the emission of protons or ultraviolet (VUV) radiation from the corpse placed in the tomb [9-12]. We demonstred that the above hypothesis, considered as model of Shroud Body Image formation, is fallacious [13-16]. In this case the radiations would certaintly color the walls of the medullas, while the image fiber show color on their surface but not in the medullas [17]. The radiative hypothesis, although supported by authoritative scientists, must be discarded. Beyond Physics (the human body emits only thermal radiation), even Theology is against it. The Divine Event (Miracle) is instantaneous while these scientists investigate it step by step. Furthermore, in such a case, the Gospels would report that the Apostles Peter and John, upon arriving at the tomb of Jesus Christ, would have seen Bloodstains and Body Image on the burial linen. Differently, in the Sacred Texts it is written only about Bloodstains.

We proposed a stochastic mechanism; otherwise, with the vectors described above, all the fibrils would have been destined to yellow [18-22]. This process, which requires a small amount of energy, is consistent with the emission of the thermal one to yellow the fibrils. This energy is present in the tomb: a small amount possessed from the corpse and released to the linen. All the fribils absorb a part of this energy and after a long latency time (from years to decades), some of these turn yellow with an optical density that exceeds the background. The same thing happens to humans when they absorb a small dose of radiation. After a long delay, some of them die. The stochastic process produces chemical changes: yellowing for the fibrils, death for humans. In the case of linen, we observe effects (on the Image Intensity values) inversely proportional to body-linen z distance, which means an increase in energy when z decreases. In the case of humans, the effects (on the Number of dead) are proportional, to dose received, which means an increase of energy when the dose increases. We note that both the decrease in z as well as the increase in dose produce the same effect. Therefore, the distribution yellowed linen fibrils has the same trend of the distribution of human dead [23,24].

In our opinion, the stochastic one leads to a distribution of fibrils that manifests the characteristics, 2D and 3D, that give so much charm to the Body Image that appears on the Shroud. This distribution, represented by the I(z), contains encoded information on the body-linen distance [25,26]. The I(z) for the Shroud of Turin shows a linear trend: I(z) = I_m (1 – z/R₀), where I(z) is the Intensity of Image value (or Density of yellowed fibrils value) to z cloth-body distance, I_m is the maximum value of Intensity of Image that is reached in the contat zones (where z =0), z, as already affirmed, is the body-linen distance and R₀ is the distance that makes I(R₀) = 0. Consequently, we can affirm that R₀ represents the Discoloration Effects Range; the maximum distance within which the effects of the body-burial linen interaction are perceived. In the representation of above function in a (I, z) Cartesian plane, the zero value in Intensity of Image coincides with I_b that represents the average cloth background Intensity.

In 2024 we re-examined the above hypothesis with the aim of finding the I(z) correlation produced by hypothetical protons emitted from the corpse, to compare it with what was deduced from the Shroud of Turin. The result was obtained with the empirical formula Range-Energy, for protons in air, of Wilson and Bobreck: R(E_P) = (E_P/9.3)^1.8, with Ep, energy of protons, in MeV and R, distance between corpse and burial linen, in meter. We used the above empirical formula because the results it provides by calculation are little different from those of Bethe and Askin [27]. The function obtained is: I(z) = I_m [1 – (z/R)^5/9] different from the one extracted from the Shroud. In this expression R coincides with R₀ because both sono the Discoloration Effect Range value. On the Shroud of Turin is: R = R₀ = 37mm. The above expression confirms the rejection of the radiative hypothesis and, at the same time, supports our ideas on the formation of Body Image on the Shroud [28]. We would have achieved the same result using the empirical formula of Rogozinski for protons in air: R(E_P) = a-^1.8 ·(E_P)^1.8 with Ep in MeV, R( Ep) in g/cm², and “a” is a parameter that for air takes on the value of 29.

In Figure 1, we show and compare the I(z) functions in air. The one obtained theoretically with the one measured on the Shroud. As we can see, the two I(z) correlations are different. They would be the same if the corpse in reality had emitted protons. The measured one is proportional to z (linear trend), the other deduced for protons case is approximately proportional to the square root of z (exactly z^5/9). However, in this figure the correlation, in the case of vacuum ultraviolet radiation (VUV with ʎ = 193 nm, near to soft X-ray) emission from the corpse, is absent. This ʎ value is used because it penetrates linen to a depth of 200 nm, as it is on the Shroud [29].

In fact, the photons energy that corresponds to ʎ = 193 nm VUV radiation is 6.4 eV that in the contact areas is entirely absorbed by the linen, with the above penetration of 200 nm. In the noncontact zone, the radiation encounters air, which has a 20.95% of molecular oxygen (O₂). Since its binding energy is 5.16 eV, the photons are easily absorbed and can penetrate the air to a depth of just a few microns [13]. The consequence is that, in all non-contact areas, the burial linen will not receive energy. Therefore, we will see only a coloration in the contat areas and no-coloration in all the others. Thus, a I(z) function for this hypothesis cannot exist.

Conclusions

We ask ourselves: is it reasonable the comparison made? The answer is uncertain because we are comparing, for the same process, a stochastic response with a deterministic one. Now, let’s make the hypothesis that the stochastic process we proposed is invalid to explain the Body Image formation and consider that the I(z) extracted from the Shroud comes from a deterministic process. Obviously, in this last hypothesis of our, there should be an energy source able, by a deterministic mechanism, to produce the Body Image. Now, it is known that the Intensity of Image (or the Density of yellowed fibrils) is proportional to the energy received: I(z) = Const. x E(z). Therefore, the I(z) measured on the Shroud, should be the product of an energy with a trend represented by a linear regression. In other words, it should be proportional to “-z”. Unfortunately, in an ancient sepulcher an energy source with the above characteristic does not exist. This absence is apparently a serious difficulty but, fortunately, there is the weak source of thermal energy of the corpse placed in the tomb. This can trigger a stochastic process that would likely lead to a Body Image like the one present on the Shroud of Turin. However, to ascertain the stochastic hypothesis it is necessary to overcome a problem: its verification in a laboratory. Indeed, the experiment should be conducted in a medical setting and monitored for a very long time equal to the latency period (from years to decades). This is, at least for us, the challenge to obtain a result that confirms or discardes our hypothesis.

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