1Department of Chemistry, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
2Central Council for Research in Homeopathy, Ministry of AYUSH, New Delhi, India
Submission: May 30, 2023;Published: June 22, 2023
*Corresponding author: Anil Kumar Nain, Department of Chemistry, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
How to cite this article: A K Nain, N Chaudhary, A Khurana, R K Manchanda, D Nayak. Volumetric, Acoustic and Viscometric Studies on the Behaviour
of Homoeopathic Formulations of Ammonium Causticum at Different Temperatures. Organic & Medicinal Chem IJ. 2023; 12(2): 555835. DOI: 10.19080/OMCIJ.2022.12.555835
The densities ρ, ultrasonic speeds, u, and viscosities η of pure ethanol control and 32 formulations of ammonium causticum of potencies ranging from 1C to 200C (with intervals of 2C up to 30C and then with intervals of 10 C up to 200 C) have been measured at 293.15, 298.15, 303.15, 308.15, 313.15 and 318.15 K and atmospheric pressure. Using these experimental data, the isentropic compressibilitiessκ , intermolecular free length Lf, acoustic impedance Z, deviations in isentropic compressibility sκΔ,deviations in intermolecular free length ΔLf,deviations in acoustic impedance ΔZ,and deviations in viscosity Δη, have been calculated. The variations of these parameters with potency show anomalous behaviour at certain potencies. The results have been qualitatively discussed in terms of interactions of these ammonium causticum homoeopathic formulations. The results show that some potencies of ammonium causticum exhibit anomalous trends in investigated physicochemical properties and may show different behaviour in terms of efficacy when used in practice.
The homoeopathic medicines are obtained through the combination of two processes, viz., a dilution of 1:100 followed by succession and these “extremely diluted solutions” show anomalous behaviour in medicinal efficacy. The efficacy of homoeopathic medicines is well supported by research evidence; however, there are controversies regarding improbability in biological activity of these medicines in which the source drug is diluted beyond Avagadro’s limit, i.e., the highly diluted medicine formulation may be alike to the solvent. There have been a few research studies relating to reconnoiter the presence of drug in extremely diluted formulations [1-5] and its mechanism of action, but the question still exists unanswered. The physicochemical properties and derived parameters of electrolytes, amino acids, carbohydrates, drugs, etc. in aqueous and mixed-aqueous
solutions of have been helpful in characterizing the prevailing interactions, which are subsequently useful in understanding of solute-solvation/hydration behaviour of solute and preferential solvation of solute by the solvent [6-13].
The homoeopathic formulations are dilute solutions, therefore, their physical properties, like density, ultrasonic speed, viscosity, refractive index, etc. can be measured with varying potency and temperature. The physicochemical parameters derived from these experimental data provide valuable information regarding physicochemical behaviour and mechanism of drug action of these homoeopathic medicines. Recently, there have been few physicochemical studies on extremely diluted solutions of inorganic salts [14-17] and homoeopathic medicines [3,18-22] by using physicochemical methods. These studies provided interesting and convincing information on the behaviour of these
extremely diluted solutions. To the best of our information, very
few physicochemical studies on homoeopathic medicines using
volumetric, acoustic and viscometric have been reported in the
literature [3,18, 23, 24].
In continuation to earlier research on the physicochemical
behaviour of extremely diluted homoeopathic formulations
[25,26], here we report the results of our study on the
physicochemical behaviour of homoeopathic formulations of
ammonium causticum. Ammonium causticum is a homoeopathic
dilution made from ammonia water. Ammonium causticum is used
in the treatment of children with primary enuresis (bed-wetting
since infancy). It is a powerful cardiac stimulant. It can be used as
such in syncope, thrombosis, hemorrhage, snakebites, chloroform
narcosis, and may be given by inhalation. It is also used for treating
hearing loss, swelling and skin disorders. These considerations
led us to undertake the present study on the physicochemical
behaviour of extremely diluted homoeopathic formulations of
ammonium causticum.
In the present study, the densities, ρ, ultrasonic speeds, u, and
viscosities, η, of pure ethanol control (91% ethanol in water) and
33 formulations of ammonium causticum with potencies from 1C
to 200C (with intervals of 2C till 30C, and then with intervals of 10C
till 200C) at 293.15, 298.15, 303.15, 308.15, 313.15 and 318.15
K and atmospheric pressure. Using these experimental data, the
isentropic compressibilities,κs, intermolecular free length, Lf
, acoustic impedance, Z, deviations in isentropic compressibility,
Δκs , deviations in intermolecular free length, ΔLf , deviations
in acoustic impedance, ΔZ and deviations in viscosity, Δη , have
been calculated. The results have been discussed qualitatively in
terms of interactions/physicochemical behaviour of ammonium
causticum in these homoeopathic formulations.
Ethanol control and homoeopathic formulations of various
potencies of ammonium causticum used in the study were
procured from Dr. Wilmer Schwabe India Pvt. Limited, India, which
were prepared in accordance with Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia
of India [27]. The densities and ultrasonic speeds of the samples
were measured by using high precision digital vibrating tube
Density and Sound Analyzer (DSA 5000M, Anton Paar, Austria).
The principle used in density measurement is based upon
oscillating U-tube principle while the speed of sound is measured
using a propagation time technique. This instrument is equipped
with both density and ultrasonic cells, with reproducibility of ±1
× 10-3 kg·m-3 and ±1 × 10-2 m·s-1 for density and ultrasonic speed,
respectively. The temperature for both cells was kept constant by
using built in peltier thermostat within ±0.01 K. The equipment
was calibrated with triply distilled degassed water and with dry air
at atmospheric pressure [9,10]. The operating working frequency
used for ultrasonic speed measurements is 3 MHz. The standard
uncertainties related to the measurements of density, ultrasonic
speed and temperature were found within ±0.05 kg·m-3, ±0.5 m·s-1
and ±0.01 K, respectively.
The viscosity measurements were done by using
microviscometer (Lovis 2000M, Anton Paar, Austria) at
temperatures, (293.15 -318.15) K, and atmospheric pressure p =
101 kPa. The temperature was controlled to ±0.02 K by an automatic
build in Peltier technique. The rolling ball principle was used in
the measurement of viscosity, having a calibrated glass capillary
with a steel ball as supplied by manufacturer. The calibration of
capillary was accomplished by using viscosity standard fluids.
The standard uncertainties for viscosity measurements and
temperature were estimated to be within ±0.5% and ±0.02 K.
The values of densities, ρ, ultrasonic speeds, u, and viscosities,
η of homoeopathic formulations of ammonium causticum as
function of potency (in centesimal) at different temperatures
are listed in Tables 1-3 and are presented graphically in Figures
1-3 respectively. The values of the isentropic compressibility, κs
, intermolecular free length, Lf , acoustic impedance, Z have been
calculated by using the following relations
where K’ is temperature dependent constant [= (93.875 + 0.375T)
× 10−8]; T is the absolute temperature, The values of, κs
, Lf and Z
are given in Tables 4-6.
The deviations in, s κ
, Lf , Z and η due to addition of
ammonium causticum with dilution and succussion are
represented by deviations of these properties from ethanol
control properties. The deviations in isentropic compressibility,
Δκs , deviations in intermolecular free length, ΔLf , deviations
in acoustic impedance, ΔZ and deviations in viscosity, Δη have
been calculated by using the following standard relations
where the superscript ‘o’ represents the values for pure
ethanol control (91% ethanol in water). The variations of, Δκs ,
ΔLf , ΔZ ,and Δη with potency, C of ammonium causticum and
temperature are presented graphically in Figure 4-7, respectively.
A close examination of Tables 1-3 and Figure 1-3 indicates that
the values of ρ and u and η of ammonium causticum in ethanol are
greater than those of ethanol control for all the potencies (1C to
200C) at each investigated temperature and these values decrease
with increase in temperature. The values of ρ and u are maximum
at 1C and then decrease significantly in presence of ammonium
causticum for simple successive dilution to the potency 2C and
after that these values increase to maxima at 4C. Thereafter, these
values decrease till 6C, then these values remain nearly constant
up to 30C, and again increase till 40C and thereafter, these values
decrease regularly up to 200C (Figure 1 and 2) with successive
dilutions. The values of values of η are maximum at 1C and then
decrease significantly in presence of ammonium causticum for
simple successive dilution to the potency 2C and after that these
values increase to maxima at 4C. Thereafter, these values decrease
till 6C, then these values remain nearly constant up to 26C, and
again increase till 30C and thereafter, these values decrease
regularly up to 200C with successive dilutions. (Figure 3). The
observed anomalous trends in ρ, u and η at certain potencies
indicates that these potencies exhibit different solution structure
from that of ethanol control.
A close perusal of Tables 4 and 5 indicate that the values of
κs and Lf for all the ammonium causticum potencies are less
than those of ethanol controls at each investigated temperature
and these values increase with increase in temperature, which
indicates significant interaction between ammonium causticum
and ethanol molecules. The values of κs
and Lf are minimum at 1C and then increase significantly in presence of ammonium
causticum for simple successive dilution to the potency 2C and
after that these values decrease to minima at 4C. Thereafter,
these values increase till 6C, then these values remain nearly
constant up to 30C, and again decrease till 40C and thereafter,
these values increase slightly regularly up to 200C (Figure 1 and
2) with successive dilutions (Tables 4 and 5). These variations
in κs and Lf are expressed in terms of deviations in isentropic
compressibility, Δκs and deviations in intermolecular free length,
ΔLf and are shown graphically in Figure 4 and 5. Figures 4 and
5 indicate that the values of Δκs and ΔLf are negative for all the
ammonium causticum potencies are less than those of ethanol
controls at each investigated temperature, indicating that the
solutions are more compressible in presence of ammonium
causticum than ethanol controls. This may be due to the formation
of stronger interactions between ammonium causticum and
ethanol-water molecules than the hydrogen bonding interactions
present in ethanol control.
The s Δκ and ΔLf are minimum at 1C and then increase
significantly in presence of ammonium causticum for simple
successive dilution to the potency 2C and after that these values
decrease to minima at 4C. Thereafter, these values increase till
6C, then these values remain nearly constant up to 30C, and again
decrease till 40C and thereafter, these values increase slightly
regularly up to 200C (Figure 4 and 5) with successive dilutions
(Tables 4 and 5). This indicates that the potencies 1C, 4C and 40C
are less compressible and 2C, 6C to 30C are more compressible
than the other potencies, indicating that the potencies 1C, 4C and
40C exhibit more compact solution structure and the potencies
2C, 6C to 30C exhibit less compact solution structure as compared
to other potencies and ethanol control. The minimum in Δκs and
ΔLf values at potencies 1C, 4C and 40C indicate that these have
most compact solution structure as compared to other potencies,
hence, these potencies may show different behaviour in terms of
efficacy when used in practice.
A close perusal of Table 6 indicates that the acoustic
impedances, Z of potencies of ammonium causticum are more
than those of ethanol control for all the potencies at each
investigated temperature and the values decrease with increase
in temperature, which indicates significant interaction between
ammonium causticum and ethanol/water molecules. The values
of Z are maximum at 1C and then decrease significantly in
presence of ammonium causticum for simple successive dilution
to the potency 2C and after that these values increase to maximum
at 4C. Thereafter, these values decrease till 6C, then these values
remain nearly constant up to 30C, and again increase till 40C and
thereafter, these values decrease regularly up to 200C (Table 6)
with successive dilutions. These variations in Z are expressed in
terms of deviations in acoustic impedance, ΔZ and are shown in
Figure 6. Figure 6 indicates that values are positive, i.e., Z values for
potencies of ammonium causticum are more than those of ethanol
control. These values are maximum at 1C and then decrease
significantly in presence of ammonium causticum for simple
successive dilution to the potency 2C and after that these values
increase to maximum at 4C. Thereafter, these values decrease till
6C, then these values remain nearly constant up to 30C, and again
increase till 40C and thereafter, these values decrease regularly
up to 200C (Figure 6). This indicates that the potencies 1C, 4C
and 40C possess more compact solution structure and 2C, 6C
to 30C possess less compact structure than the other potencies
and ethanol control. The variations in values of Z and ΔZ of
these potencies may be due to interaction between ammonium
causticum and ethanol/water molecules.
The variations in η are expressed in terms of deviations in
viscosity, Δη and are shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 indicates that
Δη values are positive, i.e., η values for ammonium causticum are
more than those of ethanol control. These Δη values are maximum
at 1C and then decrease significantly in presence of ammonium
causticum for simple successive dilution to the potency 2C and
after that these values increase to maxima at 4C. Thereafter, these
values decrease till 6C, then these values remain nearly constant
up to 26C, and again increase till 30C and thereafter, these values
decrease regularly up to 200C with successive dilutions (Figure 7).
The variations in values of η and Δη of these potencies may
be due interaction between ammonium causticum and ethanol/
water molecules. It is observed that the variations observed in
the values of measured properties, ρ and u and η; and calculated
parameters, κs,Lf,Δκs , ΔLf , ΔZ and Δη support each other.
Similar anomalous trends in these properties have also been
reported earlier for different potencies of ammonium aceticum
[28] and acidum salicylicum [25].
The densities, ultrasonic speeds, and viscosities of ethanol
control, 33 formulations of ammonium causticum in ethanol
control are measured for potencies from 1C to 200C (with an
interval of 2C up to 30C and then of 10C up to 200C) at six different
temperatures and atmospheric pressure. From these experimental
data, various physicochemical parameters, viz., s κ
, Lf Z , Δκs , ΔLf, ΔZ and Δη were calculated. The results have been
qualitatively discussed in terms of interactions/physicochemical
behaviour of these extremely dilute homoeopathic formulations of
ammonium causticum in ethanol. This indicates that the potencies
1C, 4C and 40C possess more compact solution structure and 2C,
6C to 30C possess less compact structure as compared to other
potencies and ethanol control. Hence, these potencies may have
different behaviour in terms of efficacy when used in practice.
It can be qualitatively concluded that even in extreme dilutions
the molecules of ammonium causticum may be present in these
homoeopathic formulations, however it needs to be confirmed
from other techniques.
The authors are thankful to Central Council for Research
in Homeopathy (CCRH), Ministry of AYUSH, Govt. of India for
providing financial assistance to carry out this collaborative study.
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