Abstract

Equestrian sport faces mounting scrutiny as its social licence to operate increasingly hinges on visible commitments to equine welfare. This study examined how horse enthusiasts interpret “positive” images of the Paris 2024 Olympic equestrian event, and which visual characteristics strengthen (or erode) perceived legitimacy. An accredited photographer captured 4,774 images across dressage, show jumping, eventing, training, and behind the scenes. Following a structured selection, anonymisation, and expert review protocol, 30 images were embedded in an online survey. A sample of 514 ranked images, indicated favourites, and answered five open-ended questions. Qualitative reflexive thematic analysis of open responses identified cross disciplinary convergence around three core markers of “positive”: (1) horse first partnership: visible praise, empathy, and authentic moments of care; (2) signs of positive affect: relaxed facial expression, ear posture, and low tension; and (3) rider fairness: harmonious balance, soft hands, and non interference. Discipline specific filters shaped tolerance for exertion and risk: dressage judgments centred on biomechanics (self carriage, poll position) and concerns about restrictive tack; show jumping evaluations blended athleticism with equipment scrutiny (nosebands, bits, martingales) and post round reward; eventing appraisals weighed dynamism and bravery against fatigue, safety, and ethical risk. Participants were highly attentive to the optics of imagery for non equestrian audiences and rejected “bad apple” explanations, emphasising systemic norms (judging, equipment, training culture). Overall, enthusiasts view Olympic images as ethical statements. Images that communicate relaxation, reciprocity, and genuine partnership may bolster trust and sustain social licence, whereas recurring cues of tension, coercion, or restrictive tack risk reputational harm and call for governance, education, and media practice reform.

Keywords: Equine welfare; positive equine imagery; human-horse interaction; equitation

Introduction

Equestrian sport is experiencing unprecedented scrutiny as its social licence to operate (SLO), the public’s informal approval of horse involvement in sport, faces mounting pressure [1,2]. The horse industry is particularly vulnerable to negative public opinion, with welfare concerns rapidly shaping public sentiment and placing all equestrian disciplines under intense observation. High-profile welfare controversies have heightened this sensitivity, reinforcing the public’s expectation that horse sport must demonstrate transparency, ethical practice, and meaningful commitment to equine well-being [3].

The modern pentathlon provides one of the most influential recent examples. Global outrage followed the 2021 Tokyo Olympics after video footage showed a German coach appearing to strike a horse, prompting the International Olympic Committee to announce that riding would be removed from the sport from 2028. In dressage, the suspension of British Olympian Charlotte Dujardin in 2024 for conduct “contrary to the principles of horse welfare,” confirmed through a Federation Equestrian International (FEI) investigation, further highlighted the reputational risks equestrian sports face when welfare standards are breached or appear to be breached [4].

Beyond these headline cases, calls for positive equestrian stories and images have grown, as both horse owners and stakeholders seek representations that reflect compassionate training, ethical decisionmaking, and the authentic horse– human partnership [5]. This desire for welfare-aligned imagery is set against a backdrop of ongoing concerns, for example, blue tongue in dressage [6], tight nosebands [7], and rotational falls in eventing [8], which have shaped welfare debates and heightened pressure on equestrian sports. Together, these issues illuminate the complex climate in which equestrian sport now operates. The Olympic Games, as one of the world’s most visible sporting platforms, play a significant role in shaping global perception. Understanding how horse owners interpret positive equestrian images within this context is therefore vital. Their views may reveal not only what types of representations bolster trust and support but also how equestrianism can strengthen its social licence to operate amid evolving societal expectations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the characteristics that lead horse enthusiasts to perceive Olympic equestrian photographs as positive, and to understand how these perceptions relate to broader welfare expectations. The objectives were to analyse how participants read partnership, empathy, and horse-centred practice through photographic cues; to explore how welfarecentred interpretations vary across disciplines and photographic styles; and to consider how welfare-driven interpretations of imagery may inform equestrian sport’s cultural legitimacy, communication strategies, and guide future media representation.

Materials and Methods

Survey Recruitment and Distribution

Following institutional ethical approval and adhering to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, individual horse owners aged 18 years or older were targeted. An a priori sample size calculation with a confidence level of 95% and a 5% error margin determined that a minimum sample of 340 was required. Recruitment took place via Facebook, LinkedIn, and various online equine-related sites. Using Microsoft Forms, a 32-question online survey was shared. Following an introduction of the aim of the study at the start of the survey, respondents were asked to provide active informed consent to participate. All respondents were assigned unique numerical identifiers to ensure anonymity.

Survey Design

An experienced professional accredited international equestrian and horse sport editorial and commercial photographer attended the 2024 Olympic Games in Paris and was present on all days of the Equestrian Sport at the Versailles venue. A total of 4774 images were taken and downloaded during the event. Throughout the Paris 2024 Olympics, the photographer captured images of horses and their teams, from public areas where photography was permitted by the FEI. Images were collected from horses and riders in 5 settings: field of play for dressage, cross-country, and show jumping, exercising and training, and pre/post competition areas. These images were selected by the research team using the protocol shown in Table 1. The survey was distributed via global equestrian-related social media channels and sharing platforms. Participants were asked to choose their favourite picture and then to put the pictures in their order of preference (positive to negative scale), grade how they felt about each image, and briefly explain their score (these results will be presented in a separate paper). Five open-ended questions allowed the participant to provide further detail on their thoughts and feelings, views on ethics and welfare, and to make any recommendations. Demographic data was collected but did not form part of the initial analysis and will be presented at a later date.

Data Analysis

Open-ended question responses were analysed using qualitative reflexive thematic analysis, following the method of Graneheim and Lundman [9]. The analysis focused on condensing and interpreting meanings. First, all responses were collated and read in full. Two researchers (S.O. and V.L.) independently reviewed the content to identify key sentences and phrases that conveyed similar meanings, which were subsequently coded. The researchers then met to compare their coding, discuss discrepancies, and reach consensus on the final codes. These codes were organized into lower-order and higher-order themes to reflect their content and were further filtered and grouped into categories to summarize participants’ discussions and conclusions.

Results

The survey produced 514 submitted responses. This survey sample represented a broad demographic distribution, with the largest proportion of respondents aged 25–34 years (30.4%), followed by those aged 18–24 (16.7%), 45–54 (16.1%), 55–64 (14.1%), and 35–44 (12.2%). Smaller proportions were aged 65–74 (9.0%), 75 years or older (1.0%), or preferred not to disclose their age (0.6%). The sample was predominantly female (89.8%), with male (6.5%) and non-binary (2.4%) respondents representing much smaller groups, and 1.4% choosing not to report gender. Geographically, participants were primarily located in the USA and Canada (35.3%), Europe (29.4%), and the United Kingdom and Ireland (25.7%), with smaller representation from Australia and New Zealand (5.7%) and other regions (3.9%). This demographic profile reflects a largely female, internationally distributed cohort of respondents engaged in the study.

Discussion

The thematic analyses demonstrate that participants did not engage with Olympic equestrian imagery as neutral spectators of sport, but as evaluators of welfare, ethics, and legitimacy. Across disciplines, interpretations of “positive” imagery were shaped by perceived horse comfort, human attentiveness, and the broader moral framing of elite equestrian practice. While disciplinespecific expectations influenced tolerance for effort, risk, and athletic ability, a consistent pattern emerged: images were read as ethical statements about how horses are treated, trained, and valued within Olympic sport. These findings suggest broader considerations of the visual representation of equine welfare, which could impact equestrian sport’s social licence to operate [1]; evaluation of engaging image elements has been found to have the potential to promote positive perceptions for the conservation of animals and their environments [10]. These findings have potential implications for governance, judging, media practices, and the future positioning of equestrian sport.

Discipline

In dressage, concern focused on biomechanics, head– neck position, and the role of judging. Participants expressed discomfort with images showing horses behind the vertical, tight through the neck, or displaying exaggerated movement accompanied by visible tension. Unlike other disciplines, dressage images were frequently interpreted as evidence of systemic issues, particularly where incorrect movement was perceived to be rewarded. In show jumping, participants demonstrated greater tolerance for exertion and momentary tension, provided that the horse appeared willing and was followed by visible reward or release of pressure. Athleticism and dynamic action were valued, but only when balanced by clear signs of care and appreciation. These were similar to the views on eventing images; however, in eventing, especially cross-country, risk and fatigue were more readily accepted as inherent to the discipline. However, participants remained sensitive to signs of distress, unsafe landings, or excessive risk-taking, and questioned the ethical limits of bravery and spectacle. Jones McVey (2021) [11] suggests that the virtue of bravery may have negative implications for equine welfare. Previous studies have suggested that equine caregivers are poor at recognising fear and anxiety in horses, [12] which the participants in this survey appear to be more attuned to, although the study of a still image does allow more time for interpretation. Equine experience and emotional intelligence are linked with the ability to interpret equine affective states [13, 14]. Together, these findings suggest that welfare judgements are context-dependent, but consistently grounded in perceived fairness, proportionality, and responsiveness to the horse.

Horse–human interaction

Across all analyses, horse–human interaction emerged as the central moral anchor of equestrian sport. Participants repeatedly described interaction as framing partnership, trust, harmony and mutual responsiveness as the defining characteristics that differentiate equestrian sport from other athletic disciplines. Images depicting reward, rest, or quiet moments, particularly involving grooms, were consistently interpreted as more authentic and reassuring than action shots alone. These interactions were read as indicators of empathy and care, while their absence contributed to perceptions of horses as ‘tools’ or ‘instruments’ for human ambition. Importantly, interaction was evaluated not by its visibility alone, but by its perceived sincerity. Some respondents questioned whether moments of praise were performative or staged for cameras, suggesting that imagery alone cannot fully resolve ethical concerns if broader practices remain unchanged.

Limitations of still photography

Participants showed strong awareness of the limitations of still photography, frequently noting that images represent only a moment in time. However, this acknowledgement did not reduce the ethical weight attributed to images. Instead, it intensified concern about how frequently certain visual patterns recur. Repeated imagery of tight frames, tack and equipment, or tense expressions was interpreted as indicative of normalised practice rather than isolated incidents. For many participants, the argument that images were taken “out of context” was insufficient when similar visual cues appeared repeatedly across disciplines and riders. This positions photography as an ethically consequential practice within equestrian sport. Image selection, framing, and dissemination were viewed as active contributors to public perception and internal culture, rather than neutral acts of documentation. When compared with equine behaviour experts, participants in an online photographic study of equine behavioural responses were able to match the positive and negative valence of an image 78.5% of the time, but were less effective at matching the exact affective state [15], although industry experience can influence the ‘normalcy’ of an image, and its subsequent interpretation [16]. Photo-elicitation studies can reveal emotions, insights and perceptions that text-based studies may not generate [17,18].

Welfare Reflections Beyond Individual Cases

A notable finding across datasets was participants’ rejection of the “bad apple” narrative. Rather than viewing welfare issues as isolated cases, respondents highlighted systemic pressures, including judging standards, commercialisation, breeding for extreme movement, equipment norms, and competitive incentives, as central drivers of concern. These themes mirror the current welfare priorities raised by the FEI Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission [19], particularly around systemic rather than individual responsibility for welfare standards.

Dressage emerged as the discipline most emblematic of these issues, with participants frequently citing the normalisation of restrictive tack, overly tight nosebands, and horses being ridden behind the vertical. These concerns directly reflect the focus of recent FEI rule changes and welfare-oriented recommendations aimed at reducing such practices and improving transparency and accountability around equipment use and horse presentation. The effect of noseband tightness on physiological stress, vascular perfusion [20,21] and stride kinematics [22] has encouraged national federations and the FEI to research and update equipment rules and monitoring [23], although there is still room for further education and research implementation to evidence reform and appropriate enforcement [24].

Together, these findings illustrate a reframing of welfare concerns as structural and cultural, rather than attributable to a few problematic individuals [5, 25]. Participants’ perspectives align with broader debates about equestrian sport’s social licence to operate, emphasising that the legitimacy of elite competition depends on addressing embedded norms and practices that may compromise equine wellbeing. This systemic lens underscores the urgency and relevance of current reform efforts within the sport.

A consistent call emerged to ‘centre’ the horse, visually, ethically, and institutionally. Participants did not reject athleticism or competition per se, but questioned systems where performance appeared to override attentiveness to the horse’s experience. Images that successfully balanced athletic challenge with visible relaxation, fairness, and appreciation were described as compelling, reassuring, and worth defending. In contrast, images showing constrained or distressed horses were not only criticised individually but interpreted as warnings about the sport’s trajectory. Consensus is difficult to ascertain among elite riders, whether a strong horse-rider relationship is critical or detrimental to success, which may have welfare implications [26] and could affect how horse-experienced and non-equestrian audiences interpret what they can see. Bias exists in subjective judging, which may be ameliorated by objective judging systems [27], although the use of tools such as VAR (Video Assistant Referee) will require objective assessment for suitability within equine sport, alongside emerging technologies and education that can assist with the recognition of affective state [28-33]. Facilitation of an ethical framework within equine sport could guide the implementation of welfare-informed practice [34], identifying feasible tools and practices to support sports horse welfare [35] and well-being at competition [36].

Limitations of this study

This study has several limitations. First, participants’ interpretations were based solely on still images, which capture only a single moment and may not reflect broader training practices, performance quality, or true welfare status; consequently, assessments of tension, relaxation, or discomfort remain inferential. Second, the sample consisted mainly of horse-experienced respondents, limiting generalisability to nonequestrian audiences. Third, images were viewed outside their original media and competitive context, without video or accompanying commentary, potentially heightening attention to visible cues such as tack, posture, and facial expression. Finally, as a qualitative study using reflexive thematic analysis, the findings do not aim to quantify prevalence or establish causality, but instead represent patterned meanings shaped by the researchers’ interpretive lens.

Conclusion

This study shows positive images of Olympic equestrian sport were viewed through a welfare-centred lens, prioritising horse comfort, agency, and partnership over performance aesthetics or athleticism. Such interpretations highlight limited tolerance for abnormal tension or coercion within elite sport. The findings indicate that the long-term legitimacy of equestrian sport depends not only on regulatory compliance, but on how horses are visually represented, judged, and understood by both equestrians and the wider public. Imagery that conveys relaxation, empathy and genuine partnership may help sustain social licence, whereas imagery depicting discomfort risks eroding trust and intensifying ethical scrutiny.

Research article

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

References