Review article

Prehistoric Human Occupation in The Central Part of Burkina Faso

Toubga Lassané^1,2,3, Sawadogo Benjamin^4,5 and Farma Hantissié Hervé¹

¹Laboratoire d’Archéologie, d’Histoire des Arts et des Techniques, Université Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

²Instituto Terra e Memoria, Mação, Portugal

³Centro de Geociências, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

⁴Département des Sciences de la Terre, Université Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Burkina Faso

⁵IRD, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Submission: May 20, 2024; Published: July 19, 2024

*Corresponding author: Toubga Lassané, Laboratoire d’Archéologie, d’Histoire des Arts et des Techniques, Université Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

How to cite this article: Toubga Lassané, Sawadogo Benjamin and Farma Hantissié Hervé. Prehistoric Human Occupation in The Central Part of Burkina Faso. Glob J Arch & Anthropol. 2024; 14(1): 555876. DOI: 10.19080/GJAA.2024.14.555876

Abstract

From the outset, prehistoric research in Burkina Faso focused on the northern, eastern and western parts of the country. The central part that interests us in the present study was considered to be exclusively dominated by material traces from the Iron Age. This central part, located around the capital Ouagadougou, is characterized geophysically by its flat relief and is drained by the Massili, the main tributary of the Nakambé. The country’s security context, marked by terrorism, has made it one of the safest areas for the practice of field archaeology. As part of our resilience-based archaeology, we have uncovered hundreds of Iron Age and prehistoric sites on granitic outcrops. All the sites identified face a variety of problems, mainly linked to the consequences of uncontrolled urbanization and land development, which have transformed prehistoric sites, particularly into quarries. The urgency of the situation led us to carry out a rescue archaeology surface collection at three of the sites. Techno-morphological analysis of the hundred or so artefacts collected indicates the characteristics of three material cultures: Acheulean, Mousterian and Laminar. In a general context where prehistoric research is in its infancy, these new data redefine our understanding of the country’s prehistory and lay the foundations for understanding human dynamics throughout the Nakambé watershed.

Keywords: Burkina Faso; Central part; Prehistory; Salvaged archaeology

Introduction

Until now, the central part of Burkina Faso had not been considered as an area that could host prehistoric sites, unlike the western, northern and eastern parts, which have attracted the attention of researchers from colonial occupation to the present day [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9]. However, surveys carried out as part of an archaeology of resilience in the context of a security crisis have enabled us to identify five prehistoric sites out of the hundreds of Iron Age sites in Ouagadougou and its eastern and northern periphery [10]. Indeed, the security crisis that has prevailed in Burkina Faso since 2014 has been marked by all-azimuth terrorist attacks making the practice of field archaeology impossible over much of the national territory. To remedy this situation, we initiated a research project focusing on the paleo-spaces of the Nakambé watershed, with the Massili watershed as our preliminary frame of reference, the main tributary of the Nakambé where Ouagadougou and its outskirts are structured and which has so far presented guarantees of security. The present study is based on the preliminary results of surveys carried out in the city of Ouagadougou and its eastern and northern suburbs, within a radius of around 50 km.

This area more or less covers the province of Kadiogo, which forms the Centre region, and part of the provinces of Kourwéogo and Oubritenga (Central Plateau region) [10]. On another level, it lies within the territory of the kingdom of Waogdogo (Ouagadougou), which is thought to have been established towards the end of the 15th century [11]. Settlement prior to the establishment of this kingdom is thought to have been Nĩnsi, Yõnyõnse and Kibsi or Dogon [11-13]; and the archaeological sites associated with their occupations are dated to the early Iron Age [14]. Historically, Ouagadougou lies at the crossroads of ancient trade routes, notably the road leading north to the Yatenga country and Toumbouctou, south to the Gourounsi, west to the Haoussa, and east to the Kibirsi (Dogon) [15].

Today, Ouagadougou is the main economic center, accounting for 70% of the country’s industrial activity. As with many large cities in sub-Saharan Africa, economic attractiveness has led to a steadily growing urban population [15]. Indeed, this region is the most densely populated in the country, with 14.8% of the total population estimated at twenty million [16]. As a result, Ouagadougou is expanding to encompass the surrounding rural areas, creating additional challenges for the conservation of archaeological heritage [10]. Ouagadougou and its outskirts are also characterized by land pressure, which has confined urban agriculture to the banks of the Massili and its tributaries [17]. In the same vein, the few geological features, notably the lateritic cuirasses and granitic outcrops where we have identified the sites under consideration here, are being used as quarries for development work, resulting in the slow and methodical destruction of the archaeological and geological heritage in the area under consideration.

In view of the above, the investigation of the prehistoric sites we have identified is a necessity and a matter of urgency, especially as archaeological research in Ouagadougou and the surrounding area has focused mainly on Iron Age sites [14,18-20]. Knowledge of prehistoric human occupation in this area is limited to the location of a small polished axe on a hill near Boudtenga, 25 km east of Ouagadougou [22].

On a national scale too, Burkina Faso’s prehistory lacks data on dated sites or sites with stratigraphic integrity. Indeed, with the exception of sites in the Gobnangou massif [4, 23, 24] and a few sites in the northern and western regions [1,2, 9], knowledge of Burkina Faso’s prehistory is based mainly on remains collected on the surface as part of the work of a few rare master’s theses [25, 26] and, in some cases, work from environmental and social impact studies [27,28], some of which have been limited to simple reports. These studies are generally characterized by prospecting in an area chosen according to ethno-historical or current administrative criteria, collecting a few surface remains, typological analysis of the tools and subsequent correlation with known lithic industries in the West African sub-region [8]. Furthermore, the few dates obtained relate to late prehistoric sites [1,2,4,9]. As a result, our knowledge of Burkina Faso’s prehistory has hitherto depended on chance discoveries, out-of-context typological classifications and one-off studies [2]. In spite of this, Ouagadougou and its outskirts were not included in the country’s prehistoric map (Figure 1).

It is in this context that this study is being carried out, and despite the fact that archaeological information has been reduced by surface collection, it is justified first and foremost by the fact that it is part of a rescue archaeology project. Indeed, due to the urban pressure mentioned above, the various sites are located on private property or in the middle of private fields. Work in the fields, their exploitation as quarries and living spaces (Figure 2), but also the reuse of archaeological remains coupled with the various challenges posed by the consequent human presence and the vagaries of nature lead to their slow and gradual destruction.

The importance of the sites in terms of surface area and number of remains, and their position in this central part of Burkina Faso hitherto excluded from the national prehistoric field, justify the need for this study. This, moreover, is what justifies our decision to move away from the usual approach based on simple finds, in favour of a techno-morphological analysis of the artefacts collected. On a different note, the reuse of prehistoric remains as paving materials and the presence of metallurgical sites in the same areas raise the question of the dynamics of occupation and functionality of the sites and remains over time, which in turn justifies the importance of this study.

Materials and Methods

On a regional level, Burkina Faso’s geology is part of the West African Craton, a stable zone composed mainly of very ancient rocks dating from the Archean and Proterozoic eras. Rock belts arranged in N-S to NE-SW bands host most of the mineral resources. These greenstone belts also contain immense granite intrusions, found throughout the country and throughout West Africa (Figure 3).

Referring to the simplified geological background of Burkina Faso (Figure 4), the study area is located on granitic formations. In fact, in central Burkina Faso, around the city of Ouagadougou where the study area is located, the subsoil is largely occupied by immense granite massifs stretching for hundreds of kilometers. However, these granites are often buried beneath unconsolidated sedimentary deposits, ranging in depth from a few meters to several tens of meters, such as alluvial, colluvial and lateritic deposits. Nevertheless, due to fluvial erosion, granite outcrops may be locally exposed (e.g. Gonsin and Sandogo sites). These outcrops are relatively rare in the region, and those that do exist are often quarried for building materials.

On the geological map, we can see that the granites at the Gonsin and Sandogo sites are crossed by a regional fault (Figure 4), which would have affected them through fissures and fractures visible on the ground. These natural or geological cracks and fractures are essential elements that can be exploited to extract granite blocks by prehistoric people.

The Gonsin site

The Gonsin site is characterized by a complex of granitic outcrops approximately 1 km long and 200 m wide, with a dominant NNW-SSE orientation (Figure 5). The complex of outcrops emerges discreetly from a regional plain, overhanging them by a maximum of just 5 m. The plain is covered by sandysilt colluvial deposits resulting from the weathering of granites, identifiable on photo-interpreted images by their pink to grey hue. The outcrop complex is incised by a NE-SW-trending stream (Figure 5), corresponding to the regional fault plane shown on the Burkina Faso geological map (Figure 4). This stream has probably contributed to exposing the lower parts of the outcrops. Approximately one kilometer east of the site, dark, rough lateritic plateaus can be seen in the photo-interpreted images. Within the outcrop complex, depressions stand out, corresponding to areas where archaeological remains have accumulated.

In order to identify the lithic remains in their natural context on the site, the various accumulation zones have been considered as sectors. Within each sector, there are locus corresponding to small local nuances. Six sectors have thus been identified. The first five sectors are all located along the granite outcrop.

Sectors 1 and 2 are currently separated by a rural track. Sectors 2 and 3 are separated by the river, whose incision makes alluvial deposits visible between the two sectors, particularly on locus 4 of sector 2 and the whole of sector 3, showing a significant sedimentary accumulation where archaeological remains are visible. Between sectors 3 and 4, particularly at the north-western end of sector 3, lies a metallurgical site (Figure 6). It takes the form of a small spread made up of elements of reduction structures associated with a small quantity of slag. The site is elongated and oriented east-west. The reduction structures are furnace and tuyere fragments piled up to form a surface of rubbed elements. Their arrangement does not clearly identify furnace bases. However, the tuyere fragments indicate that they were small in size. The slag identified is small in quantity and is either in the form of balls or medium-sized, loosely-packed blocks.

The sixth sector concerns a site identified outside the outcrop. This is a circular pavement site approximately 10 m in diameter. It is located below and to the east of the granitic outcrop, some 20 m above sector 1. The ground surface is bare and has no particular elevation. Outcrops of pottery pavements are associated with piles of granite boulders, some of which appear to be in place. The pavements identified are in pottery laid flat on small surfaces. They are found in the eastern and southern parts of the site. The level of erosion of the pottery fragments makes it impossible to determine whether they are decorated. The observation of a section of rim associated with pieces of reassembled body also indicates that this was a large fragment of pottery that had been crushed in situ to form the pavement. In the eastern section, there are also fragments of in situ pottery lying on the rim, and in the center, a block of slag protrudes slightly from the ground. Several granite boulders of different morphologies are also present on the site, in clusters or in isolation (Figure 7). Some heaps look recent, probably collected during fieldwork in the recent past. Others, on the other hand, appear to be in place, and could be structures associated with pottery pavements. Among the granite blocks, lithic tools have been identified and selected for study in this article.

The Sandogo 1 site

As with the Gonsin site, the Sandogo site, which lies in the same geophysical setting, is characterized by a complex of granitic outcrops. The outcrop complex is also incised by a stream, subdividing the site into two sectors. The depressions in which lithic remains have been identified cover areas of around 100m². In sector 1, the area covered by lithic artefacts extends into the adjacent ravine, exposing a relatively well-defined level of stones and artefacts (Figure 8). It’s also worth noting that present-day populations have used the remains as stone cordons. This site has been subdivided into two sectors; the second sector, containing mainly metallurgical remains including furnace bases and slag, is located around 100 m to the west.

The Sandogo 2 site

The Sandogo 2 site is a pavement site located to the north-east of the village of the same name, not far from settlements. The site is surrounded by fields, making it unsuitable for agriculture. The site is circular in shape, approximately 20 m in diameter. It appears as a slightly prominent clearing amidst the surrounding shrubby vegetation. The ground surface is covered with dismantled pavement materials consisting of pottery fragments and a mixture of stone nodules: laterite, quartz and granite. Portions of pottery pavements are generally homogeneous. The pottery is in the form of small fragments laid flat against each other. Some layouts suggest that large fragments may have been laid and then crushed in situ. The pottery used is decorated in some places and undecorated in others. Other in situ objects, notably ceramic vessels and bones, are found on all sides of the site. As for the stone nodules, they are mixed, but sometimes adjoin pottery. Among the granite elements, some have been dismantled, and analysis indicates that these are lithic tools. These dismantled materials were sampled and studied, and the results obtained are the subject of this article.

The methodology refers to geological analysis, data collection criteria, and the study of remains. For the geological analysis, in-depth research was undertaken into the geology and geomorphology of Burkina Faso, with particular emphasis on the central region where the study area is located. This research included the compilation of geological maps available from national geological surveys, providing detailed information on the regional geology and tectonic structures traversing the study area. A 3D photo-interpretation of the study area was also carried out using Google Earth Pro software. This software combines the SRTM 90 (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) digital terrain model with the most detailed satellite images in the public domain. This method provided an overview of the site and visualized the spatial distribution of granite outcrops. Finally, the geological survey was an essential step in determining the nature of the geological outcrops and identifying the various landforms. It is based on systematic observations and sampling in the field. This approach enabled us to differentiate between the various granite facies and describe the rock’s outcrop patterns.

Data collection at the various sites was based on their individual characteristics. For the Gonsin site, given its size, it was first subdivided into six sectors according to depressions, then into locus according to the concentration of lithic material. Surface collecting followed this subdivision. With the exception of the Sandogo 2 site, where all remains detached from their initial pavement context were collected, tools, nuclei and flakes were collected at the other sites. Whatever the nature of the remains collected, it was the informational potential they were likely to provide that guided the choice of collection. This mainly concerns remains that have not undergone major alteration.

As for the study of the remains, it focused on technomorphological characterization, in particular the determination of debitage methods and morphological analysis of retouched pieces. A bibliographical repository served as a basis for these various analyses [29, 30]. With a view to understanding the objectives of debitage, the analysis first focused on characterizing the retouched pieces. However, due to the granite’s grainy structure, it was not easy to detect retouched pieces with the naked eye. Indeed, macroscopic observation of granites reveals a grey color with medium to fine grain sizes (generally 1 to 2 mm). The mineralogical composition is dominated by quartz, followed by feldspar and, secondarily, biotite. Thus, in order to minimize possible errors of assessment, only those pieces that were guaranteed to be retouched were considered as tools; pieces that were unlikely to be retouched were categorized as shards. After the retouched pieces, the analysis focused on the core and then on the shards. For the core samples, the analysis focused on the orientation of the negatives, the position of the removals and the percussion platforms. As for the flakes, the presence/absence of the cortex, the orientation of the negatives and the morphology of the heel were determined. Dimensions (length, width and thickness) were taken from the axis of debitage.

Results

A total of 304 lithic artefacts were found at the three sites. These artifacts are unevenly distributed across the sites. The Gonsin site alone accounted for 254 artifacts, or 83.55% of the total, while the Sandogo 1 and 2 sites shared 9 (2.96%) and 41 (13.49%) artifacts respectively. Of these, 90 (29.60%) show traces of retouching. The other pieces collected consisted mainly of core samples (33 or 10.86%) and flakes (181 or 59.54%). They were studied according to site, and particularly for the Gonsin site, by locus, then by sector. The results of these analyses are as follows.

The Gonsin site

As mentioned above, the Gonsin site was subdivided into sectors, and each sector in turn was subdivided into locus (Table 1). On the whole site, 37 core samples, 149 flakes and 74 pieces with traces of retouching were counted. Like all the pieces in the collection, these were all made from a single raw material: granite.

Sector 1:

Sector 1 has four locus and 74 pieces were collected. Of these, 15 show traces of retouching. Of these, 7 are points, including 1 Pseudo-Levalloise, 6 scrapers, 1 scraper and 1 striker. The scrapers are distinctive in that they are double and convex. All these pieces are morphologically imposing. Their average dimensions (length, width and thickness) are 123 cm, 70 cm and 32 cm respectively. The core samples in this sector are subdivided into laminar samples (4 pieces), centripetal unifacial samples (2 pieces) and a final unifacial sample with multidirectional removals. As for the flakes, they are all non-cortical. Two morphological characteristics stand out among the flakes. These are elongated flakes (13 pieces) and circular flakes (18 pieces) with an average diameter of 75 cm. The simultaneous presence of laminar cores, elongated flakes and tools with elongated supports suggests the potential existence of a laminar culture.

Sector 2:

78 pieces were collected in sector 2, also subdivided into 4 locus. 15 pieces were retouched. Depending on the position of the retouch, there are 5 points, including 2 Pseudo-Levallois and 1 Levallois. In addition to points, other tools include burins and notches on elongated supports. The cores are composed of laminar and centripetal unifacial ones, like those identified in sector 2. In locus 1, we identified one bifacial core and 4 centripetal unifacials. A particular feature of this sector is the presence of large, quadrangular flakes resembling axe blanks (Figure 9). Their average length and width are 20 and 15 cm respectively. At the same time, flakes are dominated by elongated ones. With the exception of the large, quadrangular flakes, the remains collected in this sector have the same characteristics as those found in the previous sector.

Sector 3:

Sector 3 covers the passage of the stream as far as the metallurgical site, which forms its northern boundary. Its boundary with locus 4 of sector 2 is formed by a sedimentary deposit made visible by the incision of the ravine. This sedimentary deposit contains an archaeological level. Inside the ravine, several alluvial deposits have been formed, with archaeological levels underlain by archaeological remains. These include 9 pieces, 6 of which are large, quadrangular-shaped flakes resembling axe blanks. The largest is 25 cm long and 13 cm wide. In addition to these pieces, 1 point and 2 convex scrapers were collected. On the left bank of the stream adjacent to the metallurgical site, 44 pieces were collected, including 8 retouched pieces, 7 cores and 29 flakes. The tools consisted mainly of points, scrapers and notches. The cores are subdivided into bifacial (1 piece), prismatic (1 piece) and 5 unifacial cores. As with the alluvial deposits, there are 15 quadrangular flakes in this sector, but of less pronounced size than those in sector 3, elongated flakes and 4 circular flakes. Like Sector 2, the large number of large quadrangular flakes is what makes this sector so special.

Sector 4:

Sector 4, where we collected 24 pieces, is subdivided into 3 loci. Only 2 cores were identified, one of which is laminar. The tools consist of chisels (5 pieces), 2 points and a scraper. The flakes are essentially elongated, with a few Levallois flakes (2) identified in locus 3. As in previous sectors, the tools, and in particular the chisels, are on elongated supports.

Sector 5:

Sector 5 is subdivided into 2 locus with 7 and 8 pieces respectively. A single laminar core was identified in locus 2. 8 tools were identified, including 5 points (1 Levallois and 1 Pseudo- Levallois) and convex scrapers. The flakes are predominantly laminar, with 2 Levallois flakes. All these pieces have the same dimensions as those in the other sectors.

Sector 6:

This is the pavement site below the granite outcrop. By its very nature, this is an Iron Age site. Its inclusion as a separate sector in the present study reflects the fact that lithic remains were used in its development. These include 2 laminar cores and tools including chisels and blades. A number of flakes, including 2 Levallois, were also collected. In terms of their characteristics, all these pieces do not differ from those of the other sectors.

The Sandogo 1 site

On this site, only 8 pieces were collected. They consist mainly of tools and cores. The tools include bifaces (2 pieces), axes (2 pieces), a point and a scraper. One laminar and one bipolar core were collected. The presence of bifaces and axes on this site points to Acheulean culture. In addition, well-preserved lithic artefacts appear in archaeological levels made visible by the incision of the adjacent ravine. These artefacts, which have the same characteristics as those collected on the surface, testify to the richness of the site and the need to carry out test pits. In addition to water erosion, which poses a threat to the site, the remains of the site are also being used as stone cordons.

Sector 2:

Sector 2 is located approximately 100 m west of sector 1, and is a metallurgical site characterized by the presence of a slag heap and furnace bases. The presence of this metallurgical site in the vicinity of a prehistoric site such as the Gonsin site led us to take it into account in the present study. Research objectives include understanding production techniques and the chronology of activity. Excavations will enable us to meet these research objectives.

The Sandogo 2 site

The Sandogo 2 site yielded 41 pieces, comprising 30 flakes and 11 tools. These included 6 points, including 1 Pseudo- Levallois, and 5 burins. The particularity of all these pieces lies in their significantly smaller size compared to pieces from other sites. This may reflect the fact that this is a secondary site. Indeed, its characteristics make it an Iron Age site. However, as mentioned above, the materials used for the paving include granite pieces. Analysis of these pieces indicates that some are the result of a debitage process. The site’s proximity to the Sandogo 1 site justifies our interest in the characteristics of these remains. The nature of the raw material and the site’s proximity to Sandogo 1 suggest a reuse of the remains from this site. However, the size of the artefacts and the typology of the tools suggest a different material culture (Mousterian) than that of Sandogo 1, where the elements collected on the surface suggest an Acheulean tradition.

Discussion

Analysis of all the lithic artefacts from the Gonsin and Sandogo sites indicates the exclusive use of granite as a raw material for debitage by prehistoric people, even if the tools present in the assemblages testify to a plurality of debitage purposes. Indeed, the bifaces, axes, scrapers, chisels and points present in the assemblages do not have the same functionalities, but also belong to different production technologies. In the particular case of the Gonsin site, another feature common to the remains of all the sectors on this site is their large size. The presence in the assemblage of Levallois points and flakes as well as centripetal cores, some with preferential flakes, is suggestive of the use of the Levallois method. Together with the presence of Levallois and pseudo-Levallois points, they corroborate the use of Middle Stone Age (MSA) technologies. Laminar cores, elongated flakes and tools on elongated supports testify to the presence of laminar debitage at Gonsin. On a different note, the large quadrangular pieces collected mainly in sectors 2 and 3 are suggestive of another culture, probably from the late prehistoric period, which has yet to be determined.

At Sandogo specifically, bifaces and axes are suggestive of Acheulean culture. As at Gonsin, this culture also took place on granite. The presence in the same area, notably at Sandogo 2, of lithic remains characteristic of the MSA calls for an in-depth study of these remains to determine their original place of origin. Excavations planned at the two Sandogo sites should make more remains available at Sandogo 2 for a more in-depth technomorphological analysis, as well as determining the possible presence of characteristic Sandogo 2 remains in a stratigraphic context at Sandogo 1. On another note, petrographic analysis should make it possible to determine whether these remains come from the Sandogo 1 site. In any case, the use of lithic remains in pavements introduces the issue of the reuse of archaeological objects. This issue is currently being pursued with the use of archaeological artefacts by modern populations as stone cordons, or even as building materials.

From a chronological point of view, however, the presence in the same areas of artefacts characteristic of Acheulean and Mousterian culture, as well as pavement sites and early iron production, testifies to a dynamic occupation of the area by man from prehistoric times to the present day. Further archaeological investigations should enable us to establish an absolute chronological framework. In the meantime, the presence of these lithic industry sites in the central part of Burkina Faso is reshaping the country’s prehistoric cartography [23] by integrating the central region. At national level, the characteristic vestiges of Acheulean culture have been reported at several sites [7, 8, 26]. The same applies to Mousterian culture [4, 8, 23, 24, 27]. However, beyond the context of the discoveries, the raw materials used are sandstone-quartzite; exceptionally quartz. The use of granite as a raw material for lithic production in Acheulean and Mousterian cultures appears to be a first. Its use is best attested in late prehistoric times, notably through grinding equipment [28, 31]. The continuation of archaeological investigations in the Nakambé basin, and the forthcoming completion of the planned excavations, will provide new insights into the particular choice made by prehistoric people to use this rock, which is not very suitable for debitage. The fact that it was used in earlier periods is a first, and calls for further prospecting to identify other potential sites. The absence of a cultural definition based on absolute local data also limits our understanding of prehistoric behavior in the Massili watershed [32,33].

Conclusion

The archaeological survey carried out in Ouagadougou and its outskirts as part of a scientific resilience program has identified a number of prehistoric sites. These sites are associated with metallurgical and paving sites. In view of the threats to these sites, we carried out rescue archaeology by collecting surface material remains. The resulting analysis shows the presence on all three sites of remains characteristic of Acheulean, Mousterian and Laminar cultures. Correlated with the pavement and metallurgical sites characteristic of the Iron Age, we can assume a dynamic human occupation of the area from prehistoric times to the present day. Prehistoric human occupation of this area was previously little-known. The extension of surveys and the prospects for excavations as part of our research project on the Nakambé paleospaces will enable us to gain a better understanding of prehistoric human behaviour in this area.

On a different note, the use of prehistoric remains in the development of living spaces by Iron Age man, and later by modern man, introduces the issue of the reuse of archaeological remains. Future excavations on the various types of sites identified should help us to understand this phenomenon.

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